Foundations of International Climate Law : Objectives, principles and methods

This chapter explores the objectives, principle and methods of climate law. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) lays the foundations of the international regime by setting out its ultimate objectives in Article 2, the key principles in Article 3, and the methods of the regime in Article 4. The ultimate objective of the regime – to avoid dangerous anthropogenic interference – is examined and assessments of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) are considered when seeking to understand the definition of this concept. The international environmental principles of: state sovereignty and responsibility, preventative action, cooperation, sustainable development, precaution, polluter pays and common but differentiated responsibility are then examined and their incorporation within the international climate regime instruments evaluated. This is followed by an examination of the methods used by the mitigation and adaptation regimes in seeking to achieve the objective of the UNFCCC. Methods of the mitigation regime include: domestic implementation of policies, setting of standards and targets and allocation of rights, use of flexibility mechanisms, and reporting. While it is noted that methods of the adaptation regime are still evolving, the latter includes measures such as impact assessments, national adaptation plans and the provision of funding.

IT pricing: Copyright law, consumer rights, and competition policy. A submission to the House of Representatives Standing Committee on Infrastructure and Communications Inquiry into IT Pricing

For a hundred years, since Federation, Australian consumers have suffered the indignity and the tragedy of price discrimination. From the time of imperial publishing networks, Australia has been suffered from cultural colonialism. In respect of pricing of copyright works, Australian consumers have been gouged; ripped-off; and exploited. Digital technologies have not necessarily brought an end to such price discrimination. Australian consumers have been locked out by technological protection measures; subject to surveillance, privacy intrusions and security breaches; locked into walled gardens by digital rights management systems; and geo-blocked.

A study of the extent to which Irish law, policy and practice allow for Ireland's application of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989 to pre-natal children

The central research question of this thesis asks the extent to which Irish law, policy and practice allow for the application of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) to pre-natal children. First, it is demonstrated that pre-natal children can fall within the definition of ‘child’ under the Convention and so the possibility of applying the Convention to children before birth is opened. Many State Parties to the CRC have interpreted it as applicable to pre-natal children, while others have expressed that it only applies from birth. Ireland has not clarified whether or not it interprets it as being applicable from conception, birth, or some other point. The remainder of the thesis examines the extent to which Ireland interprets the CRC as applicable to the pre-natal child. First, the question of whether Ireland affords to the pre-natal child the right to life under Article 6(1) of the Convention is analysed. Given the importance of the indivisibility of rights under the Convention, the extent to which Ireland applies other CRC rights to pre-natal children is examined. The rights analysed are the right to protection from harm, the right to the provision of health care and the procedural right to representation. It is concluded that Ireland’s laws, policies and practices require urgent clarification on the issue of the extent to which rights such as protection, health care and representation apply to children before birth. In general, there are mixed and ad hoc approaches to these issues in Ireland and there exists a great deal of confusion amongst those working on the frontline with such children, such as health care professionals and social workers. The thesis calls for significant reform in this area in terms of law and policy, which will inform practice.

The Effect of Human RIghts on Criminal Evidentiary Processes: Convergence, Divergence or Realignment?

This article examines the contribution which the European Court of Human Rights has made to the development of common evidentiary processes across the common law and civil law systems of criminal procedure in Europe. It is argued that the continuing use of terms such as 'adversarial' and 'inquisitorial' to describe models of criminal proof and procedure has obscured the genuinely transformative nature of the Court's jurisprudence. It is shown that over a number of years the Court has been steadily developing a new model of proof that is better characterised as 'participatory' than as 'adversarial' or 'inquisitorial'. Instead of leading towards a convergence of existing 'adversarial' and 'inquisitorial' models of proof, this is more likely to lead towards a realignment of existing processes of proof which nonetheless allows plenty of scope for diverse application in different institutional and cultural settings.

Germany v Italy:The Triumph of Sovereign Immunity over Human Rights Law

This article analyses the doctrine of State immunity within the context of the recent judgment of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) concerning the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v Italy: Greece intervening). The object of this article is to explore the implications of the State immunity from foreign judicial proceedings in cases of jus cogens crimes. Challenging the assumption that the law of immunity is merely procedural in nature, this article argues that there can be no immunity in cases of undisputed international crimes.

Taking as Giving, Appropriation as Access: Transfers of Land Development Rights and China’s Recent Experiments

Economic development at both the domestic and global levels is associated with increasing tensions which are inextricably linked to the meaning and allocation of property rights, which has a great impact on appropriation of resources and may lead to different paths of development. “Taking”-- the appropriation of private land for public needs -- is a typical example that exhibits those tensions, posing a challenge to the conventional conception of property as individualistic and exclusive rights of possession, use, and disposition and to the associated neoliberal model of development. Should the individual landowner be left to bear the cost of a regulatory intervention which endures to the wider benefit of the whole community? How to mitigate the tensions between private ownership and public regulation? If we take the liberal concept of property, then private property seems to be in constant conflict with public interests and wider social concerns. Meanwhile, community, situating between the state and the individuals, and community’s relationship to development rights, have not provoked enough discussion. The paper explores the different ways land development rights might be seen both in Western, essentially common law systems, and in China, especially now and in view of two case studies. An empirical example in Wugang, China reveals the importance of integrating the “community lens” proposed by Roger Cotterrell into studies of the transfer of land development rights. Reading through the community lens, taking could be giving and appropriation could also be access. This approach provides a new perspective to re-evaluate the relationship between legal appropriation and development.

Time for Reform? Refugees, Asylum-seekers and Protection Under International Human Rights Law

The aim is to explore the protection that international human rights law offers to refugees, asylum-seekers, and the forcibly displaced. The ambition of the global rights framework is to guarantee a defined range of rights to all human beings, and thus move the basis for normative entitlement from exclusive reliance on national membership to a common humanity. This comprehensive and international perspective remains formally tied to states - acting individually or collectively - in terms of creation and implementation. The norms must find an entry point into the empirical world, and there must be clarity on responsibilities for practical delivery. It should remain unsurprising that the expectations raised by the normative reach of the law are frequently dashed in the complex and difficult human world of instrumental politics, power, and conflict. The intention here is to outline the international human rights law context, and indicate the value and limitations for the protection of refugees and asylum-seekers. A question is then raised about possible reform.

BA'S : The practice and law of bankers' acceptance

Au cours d'une transaction portant sur une acceptation bancaire (ci-après «BA» tel que dénommée dans le jargon juridique) différents types de relations peuvent s'établir entre les parties impliquées, certaines plus directes que d'autres. Dans une transaction donnée, à part le client et la banque, on peut trouver une ou plusieurs banques participantes et un ou plusieurs investisseurs, qui deviennent détenteurs de BA. La situation peut devenir complexe et les relations légales risquent de devenir assez compliquées. Cependant, il est important d'identifier si la relation s'est établie à travers l'instrument de BA, si elle existe par le biais d'une relation contractuelle ordinaire ou encore, si elle existe par le fait de la loi. Une bonne analyse des circonstances entourant la transaction, des facteurs connexes à la transaction et des droits et obligations qui existent entre les parties, sera nécessaire pour déterminer laquelle de la loi provinciale ou fédérale s'appliquera, et dans quelle mesure. Une fois accordée, la BA est gouvernée par la Loi sur les lettres de change. Toutes solutions apportées à un problème qui implique des BA, doivent, en principe, respecter la nature inhérente de la BA en tant qu'effet de commerce, gouverné par la loi fédérale. En matière de BA, c'est, soit la Loi sur les lettres de change soit la Loi sur les lettres et billets de dépôt (Depository Bills and Note Act) qui s'appliqueront à l'acte. Comme il existe des lois fédérales applicables à la BA, l'objet de notre étude est de déterminer si, et dans quelle circonstance la loi de la province, tel que le Code civil du Québec, trouvera application et éclaircira dans certains cas la disposition contenue dans la Loi sur les lettres de change, notamment lorsque les dispositions de ladite loi sont silencieuses ou ambigües. La solution la plus simple serait d'appliquer la loi provinciale aux matières qui ne sont pas traitées dans la loi, étant donné que les lois provinciales apportent souvent un complément à la législation fédérale. Cependant, la Loi sur les lettres de change contient des dispositions spéciales, tel que l'article 9 qui stipule : « 9. Les règles de la common law d'Angleterre, y compris en droit commercial, s'appliquent aux lettres, billets et chèques dans la mesure de leur compatibilité avec les dispositions expresses de la présente loi. » Cette disposition a crée une certaine confusion relativement à l'application du droit civil du Québec en matière de Lettres de change. En effet, il existe un doute quant à savoir si l'application de l'article 9 est une incorporation par référence qui exclue totalement l'application du droit civil. Cette question continue de se poser inexorablement dans la doctrine et la jurisprudence. Elle a en effet donné lieu à une série de théories quand au degré d'application de la common law en matière de lettres de change. Une revue de la jurisprudence dominante nous permet de conclure que les tribunaux ont accepté l'application du droit provinciale dans certaines questions impliquant les lettres de change. La question essentielle traitée lors de notre analyse est la suivante: lorsqu'un litige prend naissance dans une transaction de BA, quelle est la règle qui devra s'appliquer? Quel sera le droit qui gouvernera les problèmes émergeant dans une BA, celui du Code Civil du Québec ou celui de la common law d'Angleterre? Étant donne le nombre de cas qui sont portés devant les cours de justice en rapport avec des transactions de BA, comprendre quelle sera la loi applicable est d'une importance fondamentale. Pour répondre à cette question, nous commencerons par un examen de l'historique, du développement et de l'évolution de la BA. Afin de mieux comprendre la BA, nous débuterons par un bref survol des origines de cet instrument juridique. Dans le deuxième chapitre, nous analyserons la nature et le caractère légal de la BA. Cela constituera le cadre aux travers duquel nous pourrons identifier les règles et les principes qui s'appliquent aux différents aspects de la transaction de BA. Le chapitre trois fera l'objet d'un examen détaillé des mécanismes de l'opération de BA tout en étudiant de près les exigences imposées par la législation applicable. Après avoir examine l'aspect légal de la BA, nous procéderons au chapitre quatre, à l'étude de l'applicabilité de la loi provinciale relativement à certains aspects de la transaction de BA. A cet effet, nous examinerons les différentes approches de compréhension de la Loi sur les lettres de change et plus particulièrement la problématique rencontrée à l'article 9. Nous étudierons aussi l'application et l'interprétation de cette loi par les tribunaux du Québec au cours du siècle dernier. Les juges et les juristes se sont penchés sur les sens qu'a voulu donner le législateur lorsqu'il a stipulé dans l'article 9 «Le règles de la common law d'Angleterre, y compris en droit commercial, s appliquent aux lettres, billets et chèques dans la mesure de leur compatibilité avec les dispositions expresses de la présente loi ». Cette section doit-elle être appliquée à la lettre, nous obligeant à appliquer la common law d'Angleterre a chaque problème qui peut se poser en relation avec les lettres et les billets? Le Parlement a-t-il l'intention que cette disposition s'applique également au Québec, dont le droit privé est basé sur le système du Code Civil? Notre étude portera sur les différentes approches d'interprétation qui offrent une diversité de solutions au problème posé par l'article 9. Finalement, compte tenu des nouveaux développements législatifs, au chapitre cinq, nous proposons une méthode en vue de déterminer la loi applicable aux différents aspects de la transaction de BA. Notre analyse nous a conduit à adopter la solution proposée par la majorité des juristes, à la différence que notre approche de l'article 9 est basée sur des raisons de politique. Nous avons donc adopté la stricte dichotomie (en tant qu'effet négociable d'une part, et d'une sorte de contrat et de propriété de l'autre) en prenant en compte les difficultés inhérentes à déterminer quand l'un finit et l'autre commence. En conclusion, selon notre opinion, il existe deux solutions. Premièrement, il y a la possibilité que l'article 9 puisse être écarté. Dans ce cas, toutes les matières qui ne sont pas expressément évoquées dans la loi tomberont dans la compétence de la loi provinciale, comme c'est le cas dans d'autres types de législations fédérales. Dans ces situations, le droit civil du Québec joue un rôle supplétif dans les applications d'une loi fédérale au Québec. Deuxièmement, modifier l'article 9 plutôt que d'en écarter son application offre une autre possibilité. Incorporer la large stricte dichotomie dans l'article 9 nous semble être une solution préférable. La disposition pourrait se lire comme suit: « Les règles de la common law d'Angleterre incluant le droit commercial dans la mesure ou elles ne sont pas incompatibles avec les dispositions expresses de la Loi, s’appliquent aux lettres, billets, et chèques au sens stricte. Pour plus de certitude, les lettres et les billets au sens strict, incluent la forme, la délivrance et I’émission des lettres, billets, et chèques.» Ce type de changement se révélera être un pas important dans le but de clarifier la loi et déterminer l'équilibre à trouver entre l'application des lois fédérales et provinciales en matière de BA.

Protection of Farmers’ Rights in India-Challenges for Law in the Context of Plant Breeders’ Rights

School of Legal Studies, Cochin University of Science and Technology

Rights of the Prisoner: An Evolving Jurisprudence

Imprisonment is the most common method of punishment resorted to by almost all legal systems.The new theories of crime causation propounded in the latter half of the nineteenth century gave rise to the feeling that the prisons could be used as appropriate institutions for reforming the offenders. It called for individualisation of punishment.As a result of international movements for humanisation of prisons the judiciary' in tine common law countries started taking active interest in prisoner's treatment.Various studies reveal that much has been done in America to improve the lot of prisoners and to treat them as human beings.The courts there have gone to the extent of saying that there is no iron curtain between a prisoner and the constitution. Most of the rights available to citizens except those which they cannot enjoy due to the conditions of incarceration have also been granted to prisoner.In India also the judiciary has come forward to protect the rights of the prisoners.Maneka Gandhi is a turning point in prisoner's rights.The repeated intervention of courts in prison administration project the view that prisoners have been denied the basic human rights.The High Courts and the Supreme Court of India have been gradually exercising jurisdiction ixl assuming prison justice, including improving the quality of food and amenities, payment of wages and appropriate standards of medical care. Access to courts must be made easier to the aggrieved prisoners.The government should come forward along with some public spirited citizens and voluntary organisations to form a "discharged prisoner“ aid society. The society should exploit opportunities for rehabilitation of prisoners after their release.Most of the prison buildings in the State of Kerala are ill-equipped, ill furnished and without proper ventilation or sanitation and with insufficient water supply arrangements.In India prisoners and prisons today are governed by the old central legislations like Prisons Act l894 Prisoners Act 1900 and the Transfer of Prisoners Act 1950.

The "value" of property rights in social security law

This article provides a critical examination of the way that property rules are applied judicially in the context of social security law concerned with the assessment of capital, and especially in connection with the determination of ownership and the valuation of assets, which can have a critical bearing on entitlement to various means-tested benefits.

The moral rights of authors and performers: an international and comparative analysis

This book is a comprehensive guide to the development and utilization of authorial moral rights across the key jurisdictions of the English-speaking world and in France and Germany. In recent years, the copyright statutes of the common law countries have been expanded by the introduction of provisions dealing with purely authorial rights - moral rights.
The Moral Rights of Authors and Performers discusses the historical development of the rights in Europe, with particular reference to France and Germany, and shows the growth of moral rights theory and legislative coverage up to the late 1930s. During the 1920s the moral rights of authors became the subject of international protection, particularly through the operation of the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works. The book explores the adoption of moral rights into this and other international instruments, explaining the functions that moral rights were intended to perform.
The author gives detailed accounts of the operation of moral rights in France and Germany today, addressing both statutory interpretation and doctrinal issues. The provision of case studies gives an impression of the rich jurisprudence associated with the rights in these countries.
The book also contains a detailed discussion of the versions of moral rights that have become entrenched in Canada, the UK, the US and Australia, with each country considered independently. It deals separately with the introduction of the rights into each country and their operation and interpretation by courts and commentators. Material on common law analogues to the rights is provided, which indicates alternative actions that practitioners might take. Problems of cross-jurisdictional legal proceedings (especially arising from technological transfer of information) are also addressed, with moral rights protection elsewhere in the world summarized in tabular form.

Opting out of shareholder governance rights: a new perspective on contractual freedom in Australian corporate law

One of the classic debates in corporate law relates to whether the rules of corporate law are ar should be 'mandatory', in that companies must comply, or 'enabling' - meaning a set of default rules which companies have the choice of adopting or 'opting out' of through alternative contractual arrangements. The so-called 'mandatory/enabling' debate has been especially prominent in the United States fro numerous reasons, yet has also received some attention in Australia. That said, the extent to which companies can 'opt out' of corporate law has rarely been considered as a practical issue in Australia - particularly whether Australian companies can 'opt out' of provisions under the Corporations Act ("the Act"). However, just recently, two high-profile events in Australia have made 'opting out' of corporate law a relevant issue, especially the question of whether companies are free to 'opt out' of provisions of the Corporations Act  which provide express governance rights to shareholders. These events were Boral's constitutional amendment in 2003 to restrict the ability of shreholders to propose amendments to the company's constitution, and the contemplation and introduction of so-called 'pre-nuptial' agreements- designed to by-pass the right of shreholders to vote on removing directors in public companies. In the light of these two recent events, in this article the authors revisit the mandatory/enabling debate. However, rather than going over old ground as to whether a mandatory or enabling approach to corporate regulation is desirable, the authors approach the issue from a fresh perspective: that Australian Securitiesand Investments Commission's ("ASIC") existing relief powers under the Act should be extended to provide a means for companies to opt out of provisions containing shareholder governance rights.