Subjective QoE Analysis of HTTP Adaptive Streaming Applications

Actualmente la optimization de la calidad de experiencia (Quality of Experience- QoE) de HTTP Adaptive Streaming (HAS) de video recibe una atención creciente. Este incremento de interés proviene fundamentalmente de las carencias de las soluciones actuales HAS, que, al no ser QoE-driven, no incluyen la percepción de la calidad de los usuarios finales como una parte integral de la lógica de adaptación. Por lo tanto, la obtención de información de referencia fiable en QoE en HAS presenta retos importantes, ya que las metodologías de evaluación subjetiva de la calidad de vídeo propuestas en las normas actuales no son adecuadas para tratar con la variación temporal de la calidad que es consustancial de HAS. Esta tesis investiga la influencia de la adaptación dinámica en la calidad de la transmisión de vídeo considerando métodos de evaluación subjetiva. Tras un estudio exhaustivo del estado del arte en la evaluación subjetiva de QoE en HAS, se han resaltado los retos asociados y las líneas de investigación abiertas. Como resultado, se han seleccionado dos líneas principales de investigación: el análisis del impacto en la QoE de los parámetros de las técnicas de adaptación y la investigación de las metodologías de prueba subjetiva adecuada para evaluación de QoE en HAS. Se han llevado a cabo un conjunto de experimentos de laboratorio para investigar las cuestiones planteadas mediante la utilización de diferentes metodologáas para pruebas subjetivas. El análisis estadístico muestra que no son robustas todas las suposiciones y reivindicaciones de las referencias analizadas, en particular en lo que respecta al impacto en la QoE de la frecuencia de las variaciones de calidad, de las adaptaciones suaves o abruptas y de las oscilaciones de calidad. Por otra parte, nuestros resultados confirman la influencia de otros parámetros, como la longitud de los segmentos de vídeo y la amplitud de las oscilaciones de calidad. Los resultados también muestran que tomar en consideración las características objetivas de los contenidos puede ser beneficioso para la mejora de la QoE en HAS. Además, todos los resultados han sido validados mediante extensos análisis experimentales que han incluido estudio tanto en otros laboratorios como en crowdsourcing Por último, sobre los aspectos metodológicos de las pruebas subjetivas de QoE, se ha realizado la comparación entre los resultados experimentales obtenidos a partir de un método estandarizado basado en estímulos cortos (ACR) y un método semi continuo (desarrollado para la evaluación de secuencias prolongadas de vídeo). A pesar de algunas diferencias, el resultado de los análisis estadísticos no muestra ningún efecto significativo de la metodología de prueba. Asimismo, aunque se percibe la influencia de la presencia de audio en la evaluación de degradaciones del vídeo, no se han encontrado efectos estadísticamente significativos de dicha presencia. A partir de la ausencia de influencia del método de prueba y de la presencia de audio, se ha realizado un análisis adicional sobre el impacto de realizar comparaciones estadísticas múltiples en niveles estadísticos de importancia que aumentan la probabilidad de los errores de tipo-I (falsos positivos). Nuestros resultados muestran que, para obtener un efectos sólido en el análisis estadístico de los resultados subjetivos, es necesario aumentar el número de sujetos de las pruebas claramente por encima de los tamaños de muestras propuestos por las normas y recomendaciones actuales. ABSTRACT Optimizing the Quality of Experience (QoE) of HTTP adaptive video streaming (HAS) is receiving increasing attention nowadays. The growth of interest is mainly caused by the fact that current HAS solutions are not QoE-driven, i.e. end-user quality perception is not integral part of the adaptation logic. However, obtaining the necessary reliable ground truths on HAS QoE faces substantial challenges, since the subjective video quality assessment methodologies as proposed by current standards are not well-suited for dealing with the time-varying quality properties that are characteristic for HAS. This thesis investigates the influence of dynamic quality adaptation on the QoE of streaming video by means of subjective evaluation approaches. Based on a comprehensive survey of related work on subjective HAS QoE assessment, the related challenges and open research questions are highlighted and discussed. As a result, two main research directions are selected for further investigation: analysis of the QoE impact of different technical adaptation parameters, and investigation of testing methodologies suitable for HAS QoE evaluation. In order to investigate related research issues and questions, a set of laboratory experiments have been conducted using different subjective testing methodologies. Our statistical analysis demonstrates that not all assumptions and claims reported in the literature are robust, particularly as regards the QoE impact of switching frequency, smooth vs. abrupt switching, and quality oscillation. On the other hand, our results confirm the influence of some other parameters such as chunk length and switching amplitude on perceived quality. We also show that taking the objective characteristics of the content into account can be beneficial to improve the adaptation viewing experience. In addition, all aforementioned findings are validated by means of an extensive cross-experimental analysis that involves external laboratory and crowdsourcing studies. Finally, to address the methodological aspects of subjective QoE testing, a comparison between the experimental results obtained from a (short stimuli-based) ACR standardized method and a semi-continuous method (developed for assessment of long video sequences) has been performed. In spite of observation of some differences, the result of statistical analysis does not show any significant effect of testing methodology. Similarly, although the influence of audio presence on evaluation of video-related degradations is perceived, no statistically significant effect of audio presence could be found. Motivating by this finding (no effect of testing method and audio presence), a subsequent analysis has been performed investigating the impact of performing multiple statistical comparisons on statistical levels of significance which increase the likelihood of Type-I errors (false positives). Our results show that in order to obtain a strong effect from the statistical analysis of the subjective results, it is necessary to increase the number of test subjects well beyond the sample sizes proposed by current quality assessment standards and recommendations.

Visual attention and perception models for assessing quality in 2D and 3D stereoscopic video

La medida de calidad de vídeo sigue siendo necesaria para definir los criterios que caracterizan una señal que cumpla los requisitos de visionado impuestos por el usuario. Las nuevas tecnologías, como el vídeo 3D estereoscópico o formatos más allá de la alta definición, imponen nuevos criterios que deben ser analizadas para obtener la mayor satisfacción posible del usuario. Entre los problemas detectados durante el desarrollo de esta tesis doctoral se han determinado fenómenos que afectan a distintas fases de la cadena de producción audiovisual y tipo de contenido variado. En primer lugar, el proceso de generación de contenidos debe encontrarse controlado mediante parámetros que eviten que se produzca el disconfort visual y, consecuentemente, fatiga visual, especialmente en lo relativo a contenidos de 3D estereoscópico, tanto de animación como de acción real. Por otro lado, la medida de calidad relativa a la fase de compresión de vídeo emplea métricas que en ocasiones no se encuentran adaptadas a la percepción del usuario. El empleo de modelos psicovisuales y diagramas de atención visual permitirían ponderar las áreas de la imagen de manera que se preste mayor importancia a los píxeles que el usuario enfocará con mayor probabilidad. Estos dos bloques se relacionan a través de la definición del término saliencia. Saliencia es la capacidad del sistema visual para caracterizar una imagen visualizada ponderando las áreas que más atractivas resultan al ojo humano. La saliencia en generación de contenidos estereoscópicos se refiere principalmente a la profundidad simulada mediante la ilusión óptica, medida en términos de distancia del objeto virtual al ojo humano. Sin embargo, en vídeo bidimensional, la saliencia no se basa en la profundidad, sino en otros elementos adicionales, como el movimiento, el nivel de detalle, la posición de los píxeles o la aparición de caras, que serán los factores básicos que compondrán el modelo de atención visual desarrollado. Con el objetivo de detectar las características de una secuencia de vídeo estereoscópico que, con mayor probabilidad, pueden generar disconfort visual, se consultó la extensa literatura relativa a este tema y se realizaron unas pruebas subjetivas preliminares con usuarios. De esta forma, se llegó a la conclusión de que se producía disconfort en los casos en que se producía un cambio abrupto en la distribución de profundidades simuladas de la imagen, aparte de otras degradaciones como la denominada “violación de ventana”. A través de nuevas pruebas subjetivas centradas en analizar estos efectos con diferentes distribuciones de profundidades, se trataron de concretar los parámetros que definían esta imagen. Los resultados de las pruebas demuestran que los cambios abruptos en imágenes se producen en entornos con movimientos y disparidades negativas elevadas que producen interferencias en los procesos de acomodación y vergencia del ojo humano, así como una necesidad en el aumento de los tiempos de enfoque del cristalino. En la mejora de las métricas de calidad a través de modelos que se adaptan al sistema visual humano, se realizaron también pruebas subjetivas que ayudaron a determinar la importancia de cada uno de los factores a la hora de enmascarar una determinada degradación. Los resultados demuestran una ligera mejora en los resultados obtenidos al aplicar máscaras de ponderación y atención visual, los cuales aproximan los parámetros de calidad objetiva a la respuesta del ojo humano. ABSTRACT Video quality assessment is still a necessary tool for defining the criteria to characterize a signal with the viewing requirements imposed by the final user. New technologies, such as 3D stereoscopic video and formats of HD and beyond HD oblige to develop new analysis of video features for obtaining the highest user’s satisfaction. Among the problems detected during the process of this doctoral thesis, it has been determined that some phenomena affect to different phases in the audiovisual production chain, apart from the type of content. On first instance, the generation of contents process should be enough controlled through parameters that avoid the occurrence of visual discomfort in observer’s eye, and consequently, visual fatigue. It is especially necessary controlling sequences of stereoscopic 3D, with both animation and live-action contents. On the other hand, video quality assessment, related to compression processes, should be improved because some objective metrics are adapted to user’s perception. The use of psychovisual models and visual attention diagrams allow the weighting of image regions of interest, giving more importance to the areas which the user will focus most probably. These two work fields are related together through the definition of the term saliency. Saliency is the capacity of human visual system for characterizing an image, highlighting the areas which result more attractive to the human eye. Saliency in generation of 3DTV contents refers mainly to the simulated depth of the optic illusion, i.e. the distance from the virtual object to the human eye. On the other hand, saliency is not based on virtual depth, but on other features, such as motion, level of detail, position of pixels in the frame or face detection, which are the basic features that are part of the developed visual attention model, as demonstrated with tests. Extensive literature involving visual comfort assessment was looked up, and the development of new preliminary subjective assessment with users was performed, in order to detect the features that increase the probability of discomfort to occur. With this methodology, the conclusions drawn confirmed that one common source of visual discomfort was when an abrupt change of disparity happened in video transitions, apart from other degradations, such as window violation. New quality assessment was performed to quantify the distribution of disparities over different sequences. The results confirmed that abrupt changes in negative parallax environment produce accommodation-vergence mismatches derived from the increasing time for human crystalline to focus the virtual objects. On the other side, for developing metrics that adapt to human visual system, additional subjective tests were developed to determine the importance of each factor, which masks a concrete distortion. Results demonstrated slight improvement after applying visual attention to objective metrics. This process of weighing pixels approximates the quality results to human eye’s response.

Quality of experience of adaptive video streaming: investigation in service parameters and subjective quality assessment methodology

The usage of HTTP adaptive streaming (HAS) has become widely spread in multimedia services. Because it allows the service providers to improve the network resource utilization and user׳s Quality of Experience (QoE). Using this technology, the video playback interruption is reduced since the network and server status in addition to capability of user device, all are taken into account by HAS client to adapt the quality to the current condition. Adaptation can be done using different strategies. In order to provide optimal QoE, the perceptual impact of adaptation strategies from point of view of the user should be studied. However, the time-varying video quality due to the adaptation which usually takes place in a long interval introduces a new type of impairment making the subjective evaluation of adaptive streaming system challenging. The contribution of this paper is two-fold: first, it investigates the testing methodology to evaluate HAS QoE by comparing the subjective experimental outcomes obtained from ACR standardized method and a semi-continuous method developed to evaluate the long sequences. In addition, influence of using audiovisual stimuli to evaluate the video-related impairment is inquired. Second, impact of some of the adaptation technical factors including the quality switching amplitude and chunk size in combination with high range of commercial content type is investigated. The results of this study provide a good insight toward achieving appropriate testing method to evaluate HAS QoE, in addition to designing switching strategies with optimal visual quality.

Estimating the probability of initiated cell death before tumor induction

The effects of cell toxicity are known to be inherent in carcinogenesis induced by radiation or chemical carcinogens. The event of cell death precludes tumor induction from occurring. A long standing problem is to estimate the proportion of initiated cells that die before tumor induction. No experimental techniques are currently available for directly gauging the rate of cell death over extended periods of time. The obstacle can be surmounted by newly developed theoretical methods of carcinogenesis modeling. In this paper, we apply such methods to published data on multiple lung tumors in mice receiving different schedules of urethane. Bioassays of this type play an important role in testing environmental chemicals for carcinogenic activity. Our estimates for urethane-induced carcinogenesis show that, unexpectedly, many initiated cells die early in the course of tumor promotion. We present numerical estimates for the probability of initiated cell death for different schedules (and doses) of urethane administration.

Estimating the probability for a protein to have a new fold: A statistical computational model

Structural genomics aims to solve a large number of protein structures that represent the protein space. Currently an exhaustive solution for all structures seems prohibitively expensive, so the challenge is to define a relatively small set of proteins with new, currently unknown folds. This paper presents a method that assigns each protein with a probability of having an unsolved fold. The method makes extensive use of protomap, a sequence-based classification, and scop, a structure-based classification. According to protomap, the protein space encodes the relationship among proteins as a graph whose vertices correspond to 13,354 clusters of proteins. A representative fold for a cluster with at least one solved protein is determined after superposition of all scop (release 1.37) folds onto protomap clusters. Distances within the protomap graph are computed from each representative fold to the neighboring folds. The distribution of these distances is used to create a statistical model for distances among those folds that are already known and those that have yet to be discovered. The distribution of distances for solved/unsolved proteins is significantly different. This difference makes it possible to use Bayes' rule to derive a statistical estimate that any protein has a yet undetermined fold. Proteins that score the highest probability to represent a new fold constitute the target list for structural determination. Our predicted probabilities for unsolved proteins correlate very well with the proportion of new folds among recently solved structures (new scop 1.39 records) that are disjoint from our original training set.

Dynamics of subjective contour formation in the early visual cortex

To elucidate the roles of visual areas V1 and V2 and their interaction in early perceptual processing, we studied the responses of V1 and V2 neurons to statically displayed Kanizsa figures. We found evidence that V1 neurons respond to illusory contours of the Kanizsa figures. The illusory contour signals in V1 are weaker than in V2, but are significant, particularly in the superficial layers. The population averaged response to illusory contours emerged 100 msec after stimulus onset in the superficial layers of V1, and around 120–190 msec in the deep layers. The illusory contour response in V2 began earlier, occurring at 70 msec in the superficial layers and at 95 msec in the deep layers. The temporal sequence of the events suggests that the computation of illusory contours involves intercortical interaction, and that early perceptual organization is likely to be an interactive process.

A conditional probability analysis of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator gating indicates that ATP has multiple effects during the gating cycle

ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters bind and hydrolyze ATP. In the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator Cl− channel, this interaction with ATP generates a gating cycle between a closed (C) and two open (O1 and O2) conformations. To understand better how ATP controls channel activity, we examined gating transitions from the C to the O1 and O2 states and from these open states to the C conformation. We made three main observations. First, we found that the channel can open into either the O1 or O2 state, that the frequency of transitions to both states was increased by ATP concentration, and that ATP increased the relative proportion of openings into O1 vs. O2. These results indicate that ATP can interact with the closed state to open the channel in at least two ways, which may involve binding to nucleotide-binding domains (NBDs) NBD1 and NBD2. Second, ATP prolonged the burst duration and altered the way in which the channel closed. These data suggest that ATP also interacts with the open channel. Third, the channel showed runs of specific types of open–closed transitions. This finding suggests a mechanism with more than one cycle of gating transitions. These data suggest models to explain how ATP influences conformational transitions in cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator and perhaps other ABC transporters.

Prospective measurements of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate in a cohort of elderly subjects: Relationship to gender, subjective health, smoking habits, and 10-year mortality

The decrease with age of the adrenal-secreted dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) in serum has suggested that it may be causally related to longevity. For the PAQUID [People (Personnes) Aged (Agées) About What (Quid, in Latin)] cohort of elderly subjects, we have previously reported higher DHEAS in men than in women, a decrease with age and, among men, a negative correlation between the DHEAS level and mortality at 2 and 4 years. Here, with an 8-year followup in 290 subjects, we show a global decrease of 2.3% per year for men and 3.9% per year for women. However, in approximately 30% of cases, there was an increase of DHEAS. We observed no relationship between the evolution of DHEAS level and functional, psychological, and mental status, possibly because of selection by death. In women, no association was found between mortality and DHEAS level. In men, the relative risk (RR) of death was higher for the lowest levels of DHEAS (RR = 1.9, P = 0.007), with RR = 6.5, P = 0.003 for those under 70 years old, a result indicating heterogeneity of the population. There was an effect of subjective health on mortality that disappeared after adjustment of DHEAS levels, suggesting its relation with these DHEAS levels. Death RR was much higher in smokers with a low DHEAS level than in nonsmokers with high DHEAS (RR = 6.7, P = 0.001). We submit that the involvement of DHEAS is possibly different according to gender, that association between low DHEAS level and mortality only for men under 70 years old possibly reflects heterogeneity of the population, and that DHEAS level is a reliable predictor of death in male smokers.

Calculating the probability of multitaxon evolutionary trees: bootstrappers Gambit.

The reconstruction of multitaxon trees from molecular sequences is confounded by the variety of algorithms and criteria used to evaluate trees, making it difficult to compare the results of different analyses. A global method of multitaxon phylogenetic reconstruction described here, Bootstrappers Gambit, can be used with any four-taxon algorithm, including distance, maximum likelihood, and parsimony methods. It incorporates a Bayesian-Jeffreys'-bootstrap analysis to provide a uniform probability-based criterion for comparing the results from diverse algorithms. To examine the usefulness of the method, the origin of the eukaryotes has been investigated by the analysis of ribosomal small subunit RNA sequences. Three common algorithms (paralinear distances, Jukes-Cantor distances, and Kimura distances) support the eocyte topology, whereas one (maximum parsimony) supports the archaebacterial topology, suggesting that the eocyte prokaryotes are the closest prokaryotic relatives of the eukaryotes.

Enhancers increase the probability but not the level of gene expression.

We have studied enhancer function in transient and stable expression assays in mammalian cells by using systems that distinguish expressing from nonexpressing cells. When expression is studied in this way, enhancers are found to increase the probability of a construct being active but not the level of expression per template. In stably integrated constructs, large differences in expression level are observed but these are not related to the presence of an enhancer. Together with earlier studies, these results suggest that enhancers act to affect a binary (on/off) switch in transcriptional activity. Although this idea challenges the widely accepted model of enhancer activity, it is consistent with much, if not all, experimental evidence on this subject. We hypothesize that enhancers act to increase the probability of forming a stably active template. When randomly integrated into the genome, enhancers may affect a metastable state of repression/activity, permitting expression in regions that would not permit activity of an isolated promoter.

Sampling Quantum Nonlocal Correlations with High Probability

It is well known that quantum correlations for bipartite dichotomic measurements are those of the form (Formula presented.), where the vectors ui and vj are in the unit ball of a real Hilbert space. In this work we study the probability of the nonlocal nature of these correlations as a function of (Formula presented.), where the previous vectors are sampled according to the Haar measure in the unit sphere of (Formula presented.). In particular, we prove the existence of an (Formula presented.) such that if (Formula presented.), (Formula presented.) is nonlocal with probability tending to 1 as (Formula presented.), while for (Formula presented.), (Formula presented.) is local with probability tending to 1 as (Formula presented.).

The Lateral Trigger Probability function for the Ultra-High Energy Cosmic Ray showers detected by the Pierre Auger Observatory

In this paper we introduce the concept of Lateral Trigger Probability (LTP) function, i.e., the probability for an Extensive Air Shower (EAS) to trigger an individual detector of a ground based array as a function of distance to the shower axis, taking into account energy, mass and direction of the primary cosmic ray. We apply this concept to the surface array of the Pierre Auger Observatory consisting of a 1.5 km spaced grid of about 1600 water Cherenkov stations. Using Monte Carlo simulations of ultra-high energy showers the LTP functions are derived for energies in the range between 10(17) and 10(19) eV and zenith angles up to 65 degrees. A parametrization combining a step function with an exponential is found to reproduce them very well in the considered range of energies and zenith angles. The LTP functions can also be obtained from data using events simultaneously observed by the fluorescence and the surface detector of the Pierre Auger Observatory (hybrid events). We validate the Monte Carlo results showing how LTP functions from data are in good agreement with simulations.