Detection histories for eight species of Amazona parrots in Venezuela during the NeoMaps bird surveys in 2010

Documenting changes in distribution is necessary for understanding species' response to environmental changes, but data on species distributions are heterogeneous in accuracy and resolution. Combining different data sources and methodological approaches can fill gaps in knowledge about the dynamic processes driving changes in species-rich, but data-poor regions. We combined recent bird survey data from the Neotropical Biodiversity Mapping Initiative (NeoMaps) with historical distribution records to estimate potential changes in the distribution of eight species of Amazon parrots in Venezuela. Using environmental covariates and presence-only data from museum collections and the literature, we first used maximum likelihood to fit a species distribution model (SDM) estimating a historical maximum probability of occurrence for each species. We then used recent, NeoMaps survey data to build single-season occupancy models (OM) with the same environmental covariates, as well as with time- and effort-dependent detectability, resulting in estimates of the current probability of occurrence. We finally calculated the disagreement between predictions as a matrix of probability of change in the state of occurrence. Our results suggested negative changes for the only restricted, threatened species, Amazona barbadensis, which has been independently confirmed with field studies. Two of the three remaining widespread species that were detected, Amazona amazonica, Amazona ochrocephala, also had a high probability of negative changes in northern Venezuela, but results were not conclusive for Amazona farinosa. The four remaining species were undetected in recent field surveys; three of these were most probably absent from the survey locations (Amazona autumnalis, Amazona mercenaria and Amazona festiva), while a fourth (Amazona dufresniana) requires more intensive targeted sampling to estimate its current status. Our approach is unique in taking full advantage of available, but limited data, and in detecting a high probability of change even for rare and patchily-distributed species. However, it is presently limited to species meeting the strong assumptions required for maximum-likelihood estimation with presence-only data, including very high detectability and representative sampling of its historical distribution.

A return-on-investment framework to identify conservation priorities in Africa

Environmental conservation activities must continue to become more efficient and effective, especially in Africa where development and population growth pressures continue to escalate. Recently, prioritization of conservation resources has focused on explicitly incorporating the economic costs of conservation along with better defining the outcomes of these expenditures. We demonstrate how new global and continental data that spans social, economic, and ecological sectors creates an opportunity to incorporate return-on-investment (ROI) principles into conservation priority setting for Africa. We suggest that combining conservation priorities that factor in biodiversity value, habitat quality, and conservation management investments across terrestrial, freshwater, and coastal marine environments provides a new lens for setting global conservation priorities. Using this approach we identified seven regions capturing interior and coastal resources that also have high ROI values that support further investment. We illustrate how spatially explicit, yet flexible ROI analysis can help to better address uncertainty, risk, and opportunities for conservation, while making values that guide prioritization more transparent. In one case the results of this prioritization process were used to support new conservation investments. Acknowledging a clear research need to improve cost information, we propose that adopting a flexible ROI framework to set conservation priorities in Africa has multiple potential benefits.

Interview forms for integrating education for conservation in marine protected areas management in Colombia

Environmental Education (EE) is a key component in any marine protected area management. However, its visibility and action plans are still poorly developed and structured as a clear element in management procedures. The objective of this study is to contribute with a methodological route that integrates EE to the existing model of management planning and strategies, taking the Colombian National Natural Parks System as a case study. The creation of the route is proposed as a participatory research with different stakeholders in order to respond to the specific conservation needs and goals for the National Parks System. The EE national diagnosis has shown that its integration within the parks management structure is a first priority need, being a converging result on the two case studies on National Parks from the Pacific Coast of Colombia. The diagnosis also demonstrates that communication, participation, training and evaluation have to be reinforced, linking the community and stakeholders involved in the park management to the whole EE process. The proposed methodology route has been agreed upon by the National Parks staff and incorporates advice and recommendations from different stakeholders, in order to better include the park users. This step will help us to advance toward sustainable management in marine and coastal protected areas elsewhere, taking into account not only the biological but also the social-cultural prism. The main challenges in the management and conservation of coastal and marine ecosystems today are discussed.

Avian occupancy probabilities, vegetation structure, and presence of Northern Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) in eastern and central Oklahoma (2009-2011)

Changes in land use and land cover throughout the eastern half of North America have caused substantial declines in populations of birds that rely on grassland and shrubland vegetation types, including socially and economically important game birds such as the Northern Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus; hereafter bobwhites). As much attention is focused on habitat management and restoration for bobwhites, they may act as an umbrella species for other bird species with similar habitat requirements. We quantified the relationship of bobwhites to the overall bird community and evaluated the potential for bobwhites to act as an umbrella species for grassland and shrubland birds. We monitored bobwhite presence and bird community composition within 31 sample units on selected private lands in the south-central United States from 2009 to 2011. Bobwhites were strongly associated with other grassland and shrubland birds and were a significant positive predictor for 9 species. Seven of these, including Bell's Vireo (Vireo bellii), Dicksissel (Spiza americana), and Grasshopper Sparrow (Ammodramus savannarum), are listed as species of conservation concern. Species richness and occupancy probability of grassland and shrubland birds were higher relative to the overall bird community in sample units occupied by bobwhites. Our results show that bobwhites can act as an umbrella species for grassland and shrubland birds, although the specific species in any given situation will depend on region and management objectives. These results suggest that efficiency in conservation funding can be increased by using public interest in popular game species to leverage resources to meet multiple conservation objectives.

Desarrollo de un modelo de formación del valor inmobiliario en áreas de crecimiento suburbano. Aplicación a la comarca de la Vega Baja del Segura en el litoral alicantino

Una de las principales líneas de investigación de la economía urbana es el comportamiento del mercado inmobiliario y sus relaciones con la estructura territorial. Dentro de este contexto, la reflexión sobre el significado del valor urbano, y abordar su variabilidad, constituye un tema de especial importancia, dada la relevancia que ha supuesto y supone la actividad inmobiliaria en España. El presente estudio ha planteado como principal objetivo la identificación de aquellos factores, ligados a la localización que explican la formación del valor inmobiliario y justifican su variabilidad. Definir este proceso precisa de una evaluación a escala territorial estableciendo aquellos factores de carácter socioeconómico, medioambiental y urbanístico que estructuran el desarrollo urbano, condicionan la demanda de inmuebles y, por tanto, los procesos de formación de su valor. El análisis se centra en valores inmobiliarios residenciales localizados en áreas litorales donde la presión del sector turístico ha impulsado un amplio. Para ello, el ámbito territorial seleccionado como objeto de estudio se sitúa en la costa mediterránea española, al sur de la provincia de Alicante, la comarca de la Vega Baja del Segura. La zona, con una amplia diversidad ecológica y paisajística, ha mantenido históricamente una clara distinción entre espacio urbano y espacio rural. Esta dicotomía ha cambiado drásticamente en las últimas décadas, experimentándose un fuerte crecimiento demográfico y económico ligado a los sectores turístico e inmobiliario, aspectos que han tenido un claro reflejo en los valores inmobiliarios. Este desarrollo de la comarca es un claro ejemplo de la política expansionista de los mercados de suelo que ha tenido lugar en la costa española en las dos últimas décadas y que derivado en la regeneración de un amplio tejido suburbano. El conocimiento del marco territorial ha posibilitado realizar un análisis de variabilidad espacial mediante un tratamiento masivo de datos, así como un análisis econométrico que determina los factores que se valoran positivamente y negativamente por el potencial comprador. Estas relaciones permiten establecer diferentes estructuras matemáticas basadas en los modelos de precios hedónicos, que permiten identificar rasgos diferenciales en los ámbitos económico, social y espacial y su incidencia en el valor inmobiliario. También se ha sistematizado un proceso de valoración territorial a través del análisis del concepto de vulnerabilidad estructural, entendido como una situación de fragilidad debida a circunstancias tanto sociales como económicas, tanto actual como de tendencia en el futuro. Actualmente, esta estructura de demanda de segunda residencia y servicios ha mostrado su fragilidad y ha bloqueado el desarrollo económico de la zona al caer drásticamente la inversión en el sector inmobiliario por la crisis global de la deuda. El proceso se ha agravado al existir un tejido industrial marginal al que no se ha derivado inversiones importantes y un abandono progresivo de las explotaciones agropecuarias. El modelo turístico no sería en sí mismo la causa del bloqueo del desarrollo económico comarcal, sino la forma en que se ha implantado en la Costa Blanca, con un consumo del territorio basado en el corto plazo, poco respetuoso con aspectos paisajísticos y medioambientales, y sin una organización territorial global. Se observa cómo la vinculación entre índices de vulnerabilidad y valor inmobiliario no es especialmente significativa, lo que denota que las tendencias futuras de fragilidad no han sido incorporadas a la hora de establecer los precios de venta del producto inmobiliario analizado. El valor muestra una clara dependencia del sistema de asentamiento y conservación de las áreas medioambientales y un claro reconocimiento de tipologías propias del medio rural aunque vinculadas al sector turístico. En la actualidad, el continuo descenso de la demanda turística ha provocado una clara modificación en la estructura poblacional y económica. Al incorporar estas modificaciones a los modelos especificados podemos comprobar un verdadero desmoronamiento de los valores. Es posible que el remanente de vivienda construida actualmente vaya dirigido a un potencial comprador que se encuentra en retroceso y que se vincula a unos rasgos territoriales ya no existentes. Encontrar soluciones adaptables a la oferta existente, implica la viabilidad de renovación del sistema poblacional o modificaciones a nivel económico. La búsqueda de respuestas a estas cuestiones señala la necesidad de recanalizar el desarrollo, sin obviar la potencialidad del ámbito. SUMMARY One of the main lines of research regarding the urban economy focuses on the behavior of the real estate market and its relationship to territorial structure. Within this context, one of the most important themes involves considering the significance of urban property value and dealing with its variability, particularly given the significant role of the real estate market in Spain, both in the past and present. The main objective of this study is to identify those factors linked to location, which explain the formation of property values and justify their variability. Defining this process requires carrying out an evaluation on a territorial scale, establishing the socioeconomic, environmental and urban planning factors that constitute urban development and influence the demand for housing, thereby defining the processes by which their value is established. The analysis targets residential real estate values in coastal areas where pressure from the tourism industry has prompted large-scale transformations. Therefore, the focal point of this study is an area known as Vega Baja del Segura, which is located on the Spanish Mediterranean coast in southern Alicante (province). Characterized by its scenic and ecological diversity, this area has historically maintained a clear distinction between urban and rural spaces. This dichotomy has drastically changed in past decades due to the large increase in population attributed to the tourism and real estate markets – factors which have had a direct effect on property values. The development of this area provides a clear example of the expansionary policies which have affected the housing market on the coast of Spain during the past two decades, resulting in a large increase in suburban development. Understanding the territorial framework has made it possible to carry out a spatial variability analysis through massive data processing, as well as an econometric analysis that determines the factors that are evaluated positively and negatively by potential buyers. These relationships enable us to establish different mathematical systems based on hedonic pricing models that facilitate the identification of differential features in the economic, social and spatial spheres, and their impact on property values. Additionally, a process for land valuation was established through an analysis of the concept of structural vulnerability, which is understood to be a fragile situation resulting from either social or economic circumstances. Currently, this demand structure for second homes and services has demonstrated its fragility and has inhibited the area’s economic development as a result of the drastic fall in investment in the real estate market, due to the global debt crisis. This process has been worsened by the existence of a marginal industrial base into which no important investments have been channeled, combined with the progressive abandonment of agricultural and fishing operations. In and of itself, the tourism model did not inhibit the area’s economic development, rather it is the result of the manner in which it was implemented on the Costa Brava, with a land consumption based on the short-term, lacking respect for landscape and environmental aspects and without a comprehensive organization of the territory. It is clear that the link between vulnerability indexes and property values is not particularly significant, thereby indicating that future fragility trends have not been incorporated into the problem in terms of establishing the sale prices of the analyzed real estate product in question. Urban property values are clearly dependent on the system of development and environmental conservation, as well as on a clear recognition of the typologies that characterize rural areas, even those linked to the tourism industry. Today, the continued drop in tourism demand has provoked an obvious modification in the populational and economic structures. By incorporating these changes into the specified models, we can confirm a real collapse in values. It’s possible that the surplus of already-built homes is currently being marketed to a potential buyer who is in recession and linked to certain territorial characteristics that no longer exist. Finding solutions that can be adapted to the existing offer implies the viability of renewing the population system or carrying out modifications on an economic level. The search for answers to these questions suggests the need to reform the development model, without leaving out an area’s potentiality.

Evaluation of reproductive sucess and conservation strategies for Senecio coincyi (Asteraceae), a narrow and threatened species

Senecio coincyi is a threatened endemic plant of central western Spain, with a very narrow extent of occurrence. The reproductive success and germination behaviour of this species were studied. The area of occupancy, habitat types and size of 13 known subpopulations of S. coincyi were evaluated. The number of individuals that form all these subpopulations was counted. In addition, the number of flowers and cypselas per fruit head and the number of fruit heads per individual plant were recorded in a subset of subpopulations. Germination tests were carried out to evaluate the effect of temperature and light regimes on, and possible intraspecific variation in, cypsela germination. Cypselas reached very high germination percentages (90?100%) from 15?C to 30?C. However, the germination decreased (19%) at 10?C. The light conditions assayed (16-h light photoperiod and complete darkness) did not significantly affect cypsela germination. In general, there was no intraspecific variability in germination patterns of S. coincyi cypselas. Livestock is the most important factor that can be a threat for this species. S. coincyi showed high reproductive success and, therefore, its conservation problems are not due to agents related to its reproduction, but rather to other factors such as alteration of its habitat caused by the presence of livestock.

Evaluation of reproductive success and conservation strategies for Senecio coincyi (Asteraceae), a narrow and threatened species.

enecio coincyi is a threatened endemic plant of central western Spain, with a very narrow extent of occurrence. The reproductive success and germination behaviour of this species were studied. The area of occupancy, habitat types and size of 13 known subpopulations of S. coincyi were evaluated. The number of individuals that form all these subpopulations was counted. In addition, the number of flowers and cypselas per fruit head and the number of fruit heads per individual plant were recorded in a subset of subpopulations. Germination tests were carried out to evaluate the effect of temperature and light regimes on, and possible intraspecific variation in, cypsela germination. Cypselas reached very high germination percentages (90?100%) from 15°C to 30°C. However, the germination decreased (19%) at 10°C. The light conditions assayed (16-h light photoperiod and complete darkness) did not significantly affect cypsela germination. In general, there was no intraspecific variability in germination patterns of S. coincyi cypselas. Livestock is the most important factor that can be a threat for this species. S. coincyi showed high reproductive success and, therefore, its conservation problems are not due to agents related to its reproduction, but rather to other factors such as alteration of its habitat caused by the presence of livestock.

Mapping Genetic Diversity of Cherimoya (Annona cherimola Mill.): Application of Spatial Analysis for Conservation and Use of Plant Genetic Resources.

There is a growing call for inventories that evaluate geographic patterns in diversity of plant genetic resources maintained on farm and in species' natural populations in order to enhance their use and conservation. Such evaluations are relevant for useful tropical and subtropical tree species, as many of these species are still undomesticated, or in incipient stages of domestication and local populations can offer yet-unknown traits of high value to further domestication. For many outcrossing species, such as most trees, inbreeding depression can be an issue, and genetic diversity is important to sustain local production. Diversity is also crucial for species to adapt to environmental changes. This paper explores the possibilities of incorporating molecular marker data into Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to allow visualization and better understanding of spatial patterns of genetic diversity as a key input to optimize conservation and use of plant genetic resources, based on a case study of cherimoya (Annona cherimola Mill.), a Neotropical fruit tree species. We present spatial analyses to (1) improve the understanding of spatial distribution of genetic diversity of cherimoya natural stands and cultivated trees in Ecuador, Bolivia and Peru based on microsatellite molecular markers (SSRs); and (2) formulate optimal conservation strategies by revealing priority areas for in situ conservation, and identifying existing diversity gaps in ex situ collections. We found high levels of allelic richness, locally common alleles and expected heterozygosity in cherimoya's putative centre of origin, southern Ecuador and northern Peru, whereas levels of diversity in southern Peru and especially in Bolivia were significantly lower. The application of GIS on a large microsatellite dataset allows a more detailed prioritization of areas for in situ conservation and targeted collection across the Andean distribution range of cherimoya than previous studies could do, i.e. at province and department level in Ecuador and Peru, respectively.

Identificación de áreas prioritarias para la conservación de razas de maíz en la sierra de Ecuador

En Ecuador el maíz es el cultivo más importante en superficie y es base de la alimentación para la población rural que vive en los Andes. A diferencia de lo que sucede en la Costa, en la región Sierra todavía se cultivan numerosas variedades tradicionales que se agrupan en veinticuatro razas. Mantener esta diversidad es, pues, de gran importancia no solo para la seguridad alimentaria, sino también como fuente de genes para tolerancia a factores abióticos que podrían ser incorporados a las variedades modernas. Si bien parte de esta diversidad fue recolectada a mediados del siglo pasado y está siendo conservada en distintos bancos de germoplasma, es deseable que su conservación in situ también esté asegurada, entre otras razones, porque de esta manera el cultivo puede seguir evolucionando. Para poder implementar un plan de conservación en finca que contribuya a preservar este patrimonio, resulta imprescindible identificar áreas idóneas donde concentrar los recursos y conocer las características y tipologías de los agricultores que manejan la diversidad actual. Generar esta información es el objetivo principal de esta investigación y para lograrlo se han llevado a cabo cuatro estudios: (1) Análisis de la diversidad a nivel de razas e identificación de áreas de alta riqueza de razas, alta diversidad morfológica y/o alta diversidad ecogeográfica en la Sierra de Ecuador, (2) Identificación del perfil y las características de los agricultores que conservan y manejan las variedades tradicionales de maíz en la Sierra de Ecuador, (3) Análisis del conocimiento local, manejo y usos de variedades tradicionales de maíz en la Sierra de Ecuador, y (4) Identificación de áreas de alta diversidad y bajo riesgo de pérdida para la conservación en finca de maíz en la Sierra de Ecuador. Para el primer estudio se visitaron 303 fincas distribuidas a lo largo de la Sierra y se recolectaron 636 muestras que fueron caracterizadas morfológicamente mediante 14 variables: 8 relacionadas con la mazorca (forma, longitud y diámetro de la mazorca, color y diámetro de olote y número y disposición de hileras) y 7 referidas el grano (número total de granos, color, forma, longitud, anchura y grosor de grano y tipo de endospermo). Adicionalmente, las fincas donde se tomaron las muestras fueron caracterizadas ecogeográficamente mediante 5 variables climáticas (temperatura media estacional, rango de temperatura media anual, temperatura mínima de diciembre, precipitación estacional y precipitación de octubre), 2 geofísicas (altitud y pendiente) y 5 edáficas (textura principal del suelo, profundidad a roca, pH, contenido en materia orgánica y fertilidad). A partir de esta información y mediante técnicas de sistemas de información geográfica (SIG), se generaron mapas de distribución por raza en formato vectorial y un mapa de riqueza de razas, un mapa de diversidad morfológica y un mapa de diversidad ecogeográfica en formato ráster con celdas de 10 km x 10 km. Los resultados permitieron constatar que, en los últimos 60 años, no se ha perdido ninguna raza. Sin embargo, Canguil, Chaucho y Clavito han dejado de cultivarse en algunas provincias con la consiguiente erosión genética del cultivo. La caracterización morfológica detectó diferencias en el grado de variabilidad intra-raza, siendo Patillo Ecuatoriano, Racimo de Uva y Uchima las razas más heterogéneas tanto para los caracteres cualitativos como cuantitativos. A nivel climático y geofísico, también se detectaron diferencias en el grado de variación intra-raza; Cuzco Ecuatoriano, Kcello Ecuatoriano y Montaña Ecuatoriana fueron las razas que en promedio presentaron mayores rangos y coeficientes de variación para estas variables ecogeográficas. En cuanto a las condiciones edáficas todas las razas, excepto Cónico Dentado, presentaron una gran heterogeneidad, pudiendo crecer tanto en suelos ricos como pobres, con valores de pH entre ácido y moderadamente alcalino. La comparación entre razas reveló diferencias significativas en los rangos ambientales de algunas razas como Cónico Dentado, que tiende a cultivarse a menor altitud y, por tanto, en ambientes menos fríos y de mayor precipitación que Blanco Blandito, Patillo Ecuatoriano, Sabanero Ecuatoriano, Uchima y Zhima. Para la mayoría de las razas se encontraron materiales potencialmente adaptados a condiciones de estrés (precipitación estacional inferior a 500 mm y suelos con pH entre 4.5 y 5.5). Finalmente, los mapas de riqueza, de diversidad morfológica y de diversidad ecogeográfica mostraron 36 celdas de alta diversidad repartidas en las 10 provincias de la Sierra: 11 celdas en las provincias del norte, 11 en las provincias del centro y 14 en las provincias del sur. Para la caracterización e identificación de las tipologías de los agricultores que cultivan maíz en la Sierra de Ecuador y el análisis de los posibles factores de riesgo de pérdida de diversidad, se realizaron entrevistas individuales y semiestructuradas a los agricultores dueños de las fincas donde se recolectaron las muestras para el estudio de diversidad (254 en total). Las preguntas que se formularon (11 abiertas y 5 cerradas) estuvieron organizadas en seis bloques: datos del agricultor, características de la finca, diversidad y conocimiento del cultivo, manejo del cultivo, usos y flujo de semillas. Los resultados indicaron que la diversidad de maíz que hay en la Sierra de Ecuador es manejada mayoritariamente por agricultores mestizos, de entre 30 y 55 años, que cultivan una o dos variedades tradicionales para autoconsumo, en parcelas de menos de 0.5 ha y en asocio con fréjol. El análisis de segmentación mediante el algoritmo Chi-square automatic interaction detection (CHAID) permitió identificar un pequeño grupo de agricultores indígenas con parcelas medianas (entre 0.5 ha y 1.5 ha) que conservan un mayor número de variedades tradicionales por finca que el agricultor promedio. Los análisis estadísticos no detectaron diferencias significativas entre etnias (mestizo vs. indígena), géneros (hombre vs. mujer) y grupos de edad (jóvenes menores de 30 años, adultos entre 30 y 55 años y adultos mayores de 55 años) en lo que respecta al conocimiento del cultivo (criterios de reconocimiento y razones de preferencia) y manejo (tipo de cultivo), pero sí detectaron diferencias entre regiones, principalmente en el modo de cultivar el maíz; mientras que en el norte y sur tienden a sembrarlo en asocio y con un mayor número de especies, en el centro acostumbran a cultivarlo preferentemente solo. En cuanto a los usos, se recopilaron hasta 39 modos diferentes de consumir maíz, siendo Kcello Ecuatoriano y Zhima las razas para las que se registró un mayor número de usos. La comparación del número medio de usos por variedad entre etnias evidenció que los agricultores mestizos utilizan sus variedades tradicionales de forma más variada que los indígenas. Entre los factores de riesgo que se analizaron, el bajo porcentaje de jóvenes agricultores que se ocupan de las fincas podría suponer una amenaza a medio plazo por falta de relevo generacional. Adicionalmente, las numerosas sinonimias y homonimias que se detectaron y el bajo intercambio de semillas también podrían ser causa de pérdida de diversidad, bien por reemplazo o por envejecimiento de la semilla. Finalmente, se concluyó que las razas Chaucho, Complejo Chillo-Huandango, Complejo Mishca-Huandango, Cónico Dentado, Montaña Ecuatoriana y Sabanero Ecuatoriano son particularmente vulnerables, no solo por su baja presencia, sino también por el color de grano que tienen (los mismos que la mayoría de las razas más comunes) y carecer de nombres y usos específicos. Finalmente, para la priorización de áreas de conservación en finca para maíz en la Sierra de Ecuador, se utilizaron 13 criterios de diferente naturaleza: 2 ecogeográficos (precipitación, diversidad ecogeográfica), 6 biológicos (grado de presencia del cultivo, riqueza de razas, diversidad morfológica, presencia de mezclas, presencia de razas locales y riesgo de erosión genética), 3 culturales (abundancia de variedades por finca, diversidad de usos y frecuencia de intercambio) y 2 demográficos (tamaño de la población y distancia a núcleos urbanos). Mediante técnicas SIG y de evaluación multicriterio, los valores originales de las capas-criterio fueron transformados a una escala de 0 a 100. Posteriormente, las capas-criterio normalizadas fueron sumadas utilizando tres métodos de ponderación: (1) mismo peso, (2) diferente peso según la puntuación otorgada por 72 expertos, y (3) diferente peso según el método de comparación entre pares de criterios. Los resultados permitieron identificar ocho celdas de 10 km x 10 km con alta puntuación (> 65): tres celdas en el norte (una en cada una de las provincias), una celda en el centro (en la provincia de Cotopaxi), y cuatro celdas en la región sur (dos en Azuay y otras dos en Loja). ABSTRACT In Ecuador, the maize is the most important cultivation in surface and it is a base of the feeding for the rural population who lives in the Andes. In contrast to what it happens on the Coast, in the Sierra region still there are cultivated numerous traditional varieties that are grouped into twenty-four races. Maintaining this diversity is, therefore, of great importance not only for food security, but also as a source of genes for tolerance to abiotic factors could be incorporated into modern varieties. Although part of this diversity was collected in the middle of the last century and is still preserved in various germplasm banks, it is desirable for the in situ conservation also is assured, among other reasons, because in this way the crop can continue to evolve. To be able to implement a conservation plan on farm that contribute to preserving this heritage, it is essential to identify suitable areas where to concentrate resources and know the characteristics and typology of farmer who managed the current diversity. To generate this information is the main target of this investigation and to achieve this, four studies have been carried out: (1) Analysis of the diversity at races and identification of areas of high richness of races, high morphological diversity and / or ecogeographical high diversity in the Sierra of Ecuador, (2) Identification of the profile and characteristics of farmers who conserve and manage traditional varieties of maize in the Sierra of Ecuador, (3) Analysis of local knowledge, management and use of traditional varieties of maize in the Sierra of Ecuador, and (4) Identification of areas of high diversity and low risk of loss for the conservation of maize in the Sierra of Ecuador. For the first study were visited 303 farms distributed along the Sierra and collected 636 samples that were characterized morphologically by 14 variables: 8 related to the ear (shape, length and diameter of the cob, colour, and diameter of cob and number and arrangement of rows) and 7 referred to the grain (total number of grain, colour, shape, length, width, and thickness and type of grain endosperm). In addition, the farms where the samples were taken were characterized ecogeographically through 5 climatic variables (seasonal average temperature, range of average annual temperature, minimum temperature for December, seasonal precipitation and precipitation of October), 2 geophysical (altitude and slope) and edaphic 5 (main texture of the soil, deep rock, pH, content of organic matter and fertility). From this information and techniques of geographic information systems (GIS), maps were generated for distribution by race in vector format and a map of richness of races, a map of morphological diversity and a map of ecogeographical diversity in raster format with cells of 10 km x 10 km. The results allowed observing that, over the past 60 years, it has not lost any race. Nevertheless, Canguil, Chaucho and Clavito have stopped being cultivated in some provinces with the consequent genetic erosion of the cultivation. The morphological characterization detected differences in the degree of variability intra-race, being Patillo Ecuatoriano, Racimo de Uva and Uchima races more heterogeneous both for the qualitative and quantitative characters. At climate and geophysical level, also detected differences in the degree of variation intra-race; Cuzco Ecuatoriano, Kcello Ecuatoriano and Montaña Ecuatoriana were races that, on average, showed higher ranges and coefficients of variation for these geographical characters. In terms of the edaphic conditions, all races, except Cónico Dentado, showed a great heterogeneity, and can grow both in rich and poor soils, with pH values between acid and moderately alkaline. The comparison between races revealed significant differences in the environmental ranges in some races as Cónico Dentado, which tends to be grown at lower elevations and, therefore, in environments less cold and greater precipitation than Blanco Blandito, Patillo Ecuatoriano, Sabanero Ecuatoriano, Uchima and Zhima. For most of the races were found materials potentially adapted to stress conditions (seasonal precipitation less than 500 mm and soil with a pH between 4.5 and 5.5). Finally, the maps of richness, morphologic diversity and ecogeographical diversity showed 36 cells high diversity distributed in 10 provinces of the Sierra: 11 cells in the northern provinces, 11 in the central provinces and 14 in the southern provinces. For the characterization and identification of the typology of the farmers who cultivate corn in the Sierra of Ecuador and the analysis of the possible factors of risk of loss of diversity, there were realized interviews individual and semistructured to the farmers’ owners of the farms where the samples were gathered for the study of diversity (254 in whole). The questions that were formulated (11 opened ones and 5 closed ones) were organized in six blocks: data of the farmer, characteristics of the farm, diversity and knowledge of the crop, crop management, uses and seed flow. The results indicated that the maize diversity that exist in the Sierra of Ecuador is managed mainly by mestizo farmers, aged between 30 and 55, who cultivate one or two traditional varieties for self-consumption, on plots of less than 0.5 has and in associated with beans. The segmentation analysis algorithm using the Chi-square automatic interaction detection (CHAID technique), allowed to identify a small group of indigenous farmers with medium-sized plots (between 0.5 there is and 1.5 it is) that a major number of traditional varieties preserves for farm that the average farmer. The statistical analysis did not detect significant differences between ethnic groups (mestizos vs. indigenous), genres (man vs. women) and age groups (young people under 30 years of age, adults between 30 and 55 years and adults over 55 years old) in regards to the knowledge of the cultivation (recognition criteria and reasons of preference) and management (type of crop), but if detected differences between regions, mainly on the mode of cultivating the maize; while in the north and south they tend to sow in associate and with a greater number of species, in the center accustomed to cultivate it preferably only. In regards to the uses, they were compiled up to 39 different ways of consuming maize, being Kcello Ecuatoriano and Zhima the races for which a major number of uses registered. The comparison of the average number of uses per variety between ethnic groups showed that the mestizo farmers used their traditional varieties of form more varied than the indigenous people. Between the factors of risk that were analyzed, the low percentage of young farmers who deal with the farms might suppose a medium-term threat for lack of generational relief. In addition, the numerous synonyms and homonyms that were detected and the low seed exchange could also be a cause of loss of diversity, either by replacement or by aging of the seed. Finally, it was concluded that the races Chaucho, Complex Chillo-Huandango, Complex Mishca-Huandango, Cónico Dentado, Montaña Ecuatoriana and Sabanero Ecuatoriano are particularly vulnerable, not only because of their low presence, but also by the grain color they have (the same as the majority of races more common) and lack of names and specific uses. Finally, for the prioritization of maize conservation areas on farm in the Sierra of Ecuador, used 13 criteria of different nature: 2 ecogeographic (precipitation, diversity ecogeographical), 6 biological (degree of presence of the crop, races richness, morphological diversity, the presence of mixtures, presence of local races and risk of genetic erosion), 3 cultural (abundance of varieties per farm, diversity of uses and frequency of exchange) and 2 demographic (population size and distance to urban centers). Using GIS techniques and multicriteria evaluation, the original values of the layers-criterion were transformed to a scale of 0 to 100. Later, the normalized layers - criteria were added using three weighting methods: (1) the same weight, (2) different weight according to the score given by 72 experts, and (3) different weight according to the method of comparison between pairs of criteria. The results allowed to identify eight 10 km cells x 10 km with high punctuation (> 65): three cells in the north (one in each of the provinces), a cell in the center (in the Cotopaxi province), and four cells in the south region (two in Azuay and other two in Loja).

Ulmus laevis in the Iberian Peninsula: a review of its ecology and conservation

European white elm (Ulmus laevis Pallas) populations are scarce, small and fragmented in the Iberian Peninsula. Due to these characteristics the indigenous status of the species in the region has been questioned, whilst the species? role in Iberian riparian forest ecology has been neglected. Herein we review past studies regarding this species? distribution and ecology in the Iberian Peninsula, with special emphasis on the establishment of conservation priorities. We first present a collection of palaeogeographic, historic and genetic data suggesting that the Iberian Peninsula was a glacial refuge for U. laevis. Secondly, we analyse U. laevis distribution in relation to soil physico- chemical properties and water availability in Spain. Following this, we focus on the reproductive biology of the species, and investigate the effect of masting and empty seed production on predation and regeneration establishment. Finally, based on this knowledge, we propose conservation policies for U. laevis in the Iberian Peninsula.

Native bradyrhizobial symbionts of Lupinus mariae-josephae, a unique endemism thriving in alkaline soils in Eastern Spain

Lupinus mariae-josephae (Lmj) es una especie de lupino endémica de una pequeña y específica área de Comunidad Valenciana (Este de España), donde prospera en suelos alcalinoscalcáreos, un hábitat singular para los altramuces, que crecen preferentemente en suelos ácidos o neutros. Esto hace de Lmj una especie de lupino única. Cuando se inició este trabajo, la extensión conocida de este endemismo abarcaba unos 700 kilómetros cuadrados, confinados en la provincia de Valencia. En esta área, Lmj prospera en pequeñas poblaciones aisladas que contienen un número reducido de plantas por lo que se la consideró una especie en peligro de extinción. Todos los esfuerzos, utilizando estrategias clásicas dirigidas a ampliar el área de crecimiento de Lmj y garantizar su conservación, han tenido un éxito limitado. El trabajo que se presenta está dirigido a mejorar el conocimiento de la ecología de Lmj, en particular la interacción simbiótica que establece con bacterias del suelo denominadas rizobios y se centra en la caracterización fenotípica, filogenética y genómica de esos rizobios. También se investiga la posible contribución de la simbiosis en mejorar la conservación de Lmj. Para este fin, se han estudiado diferentes aspectos que se describen a continuación. El primero objetivo se centró en aislar y estudiar de la diversidad genética de las bacterias endosimbióticas de Lmj. . Se realizó un análisis filogenético de genes esenciales que mostró que las cepas de Lmj pertenecen al género Bradyrhizobium y que presentan una gran diversidad con características fenotípicas y simbióticas diferentes de cepas de Bradyrhizobium que nodulan otras especies de lupinos nativos de España (cepas ISLU). Las cepas estudiadas se dividieron en dos grupos (Clado I y Clado II). El Clado I, incluye a las cepas Lmj, definiendo un nuevo linaje, filogenéticamente relacionado con otras especies de Bradyrhizobium, como B. jicamae y B. elkanii. El Clado II contiene cepas ISLU relacionadas con cepas de B. canariense y B. japonicum que establecen simbiosis con lupinos de suelos ácidos. Otro análisis filogenético basado en genes simbióticos, distribuyó las cepas de Lmj en sólo dos grupos diferentes. La singularidad y gran diversidad de estas cepas en una pequeña área geográfica, hacen de este, un atractivo sistema para el estudio de la evolución y adaptación de las bacterias simbióticas a su respectiva planta huésped. Adicionalmente, se estudio la presencia de bacterias capaces de nodular Lmj en suelos básicos de Chiapas, México. Sorprendentemente, estos suelos contienen bacterias capaces establecer interacciones simbióticas eficientes con Lmj en ensayos de invernadero. A continuación se investigó la taxonomía de los endosimbiontes de Lmj analizando la secuencia de cuatro genes esenciales (16S rRNA, recA, glnII y atpD) y el promedio de identidad de nucleótidos de genomas completos de algunas cepas representativas de la diversidad (ANIm). Se identificaron nuevas especies de Bradyrhizobium dentro del Clado I y se definió una de ellas: 'Bradyrhizobium valentinum' sp. nov (cepa tipo LmjM3T = CECT 8364T, LMG 2761T). También se abordó cómo conservar Lmj en su hábitat natural mediante inoculación con alguna de las cepas aisladas. Se demostró la ausencia de bacterias capaces de nodular Lmj en suelos rojos alcalinos o ‘‘terra rossa’’ de la Península Ibérica y Baleares. Dos cepas, altamente eficientes en cuanto a la fijación de nitrógeno, LmjC y LmjM3T, fueron seleccionadas para ser empleadas como inoculantes. Dos experimentos de campo llevados a cabo en años consecutivos en áreas con características edafoclimáticas similares a las que presentan las poblaciones de Lmj, lograron la reproducción exitosa de la planta. Se concluyó que un ciclo reproductivo exitoso de Lmj es absolutamente dependiente de la inoculación con sus simbiontes naturales y que la simbiosis debe ser considerada un factor esencial en estrategias de conservación de leguminosas en peligro. La obtención de varias secuencias genómicas de cepas aisladas de Lmj y de otras cepas de Bradyrhizobium reveló una alta similitud entre los genomas de las cepas del Clado I, y permitió la identificación de cinco posibles nuevas especies. Además, se estudiaron tres agrupaciones de genes relacionados con la simbiosis (nod, nif y fix) definiendo un nuevo linaje para las cepas de Lmj, diferente del symbiovar “genistearum” de B. canariense y B. japonicum. La baja diversidad encontrada en el análisis filogenético de los genes simbióticos contrasta con la gran diversidad asociada a genes esenciales. La presencia de plásmidos en cepas del género Bradyrhizobium ha sido descrita en muy pocas ocasiones, sin embargo el análisis de la secuencia genómica de la cepa ISLU101, aislada de Lupinus angustifolius, reveló la presencia de un origen de replicación extracromosómico homólogo al operón repABC, presente en el plásmido de Bradyrhizobium sp BTAi1. Gracias a esta secuencia se identificaron genes homólogos en 19 de 72 cepas ISLU. Filogenéticamente, las secuencias de repABC se agruparon en un grupo monofilético con las de pBTAi1 y separadas de los rizobios de crecimiento rápido. Finalmente, se identificaron sistemas de secreción de proteínas de tipo III (T3SS) en nueve genomas de cepas de Lmj. Los T3SS pueden inyectar proteínas efectoras al interior de células vegetales. Su presencia en rizobios se ha relacionado con la gama de hospedador que pueden nodular y puede tener un efecto beneficioso, neutro o perjudicial en la simbiosis. Los T3SS de las cepas de Lmj codifican para una proteína efectora similar a NopE, un efector dependiente de T3SS descrito en B. diazoefficiens USDA 110T. La proteína NopE de la cepa LmjC se ha caracterizado bioquímicamente. ABSTRACT Lupinus mariae-josephae (Lmj) is a lupine species endemic of a unique small area in Valencia region (Eastern Spain) where the lupine plants thrive in alkaline-limed soils, which preferentially grow in acid or neutral soils. This is the type of soils native lupines of Spain. When this work was initiated, the extension of the endemic area of Lmj was of about 700 squared kilometers confined to the Valencia province. In this area, Lmj thrives in small, isolated patches containing a reduced number of plants, and points to an endemism that can easily became endangered or extinct. Consequently, the Valencia Community authorities gave a ‘‘microreserve” status for conservation of the species. All efforts, using classical strategies directed to extend the area of Lmj growth and ensure its conservation have been so far unsuccessful. The work presented here is directed to improve our knowledge of Lmj ecology and it is centered in the characterization of the rhizobial symbiosis by phenotypic, phylogenetic and genomic analysis as well as in investigate the potential contribution of the symbiosis to improve its conservation. To this end, five different topics have been studied, and results are briefly described here. Extensive details can be followed en the attached, published articles. The first topic deals with the indigenous rhizobial symbionts of the Lmj endemism, and its genetic diversity was investigated. The Lmj root symbionts belong to the Bradyrhizobium genus, and phylogenetic analysis based on core genes identified a large diversity of Bradyrhizobium strains with phenotypic and symbiotic characteristics different from rhizobia nodulating other Lupinus spp. native of Spain. The strains were split in two clades. Clade II contained strains close to classical B. canariense and B. japonicum lineages that establish symbioses with lupines in acid soils of the Mediterranean area. Clade I included Lmj strains that define a new lineage, close to other Bradyrhizobium species as B. jicamae and B. elkanii. The phylogenetic analysis based on symbiotic genes identified only two distinct clusters. The singularity and large diversity of these strains in such a small geographical area makes this an attractive system for studying the evolution and adaptation of the rhizobial symbiont to the plant host. Additionally, the presence of bacteria able to nodulate Lmj in basic soils from Chiapas, Mexico was investigated. Surprisingly, these soils contain bacteria able to effectively nodulate and fix nitrogen with Lmj plants in greenhouse assays. In the second topic, the taxonomic status of the endosymbiotic bacteria of Lmj from Valencia endemism and Chiapas was investigated. Results from phylogenetic analysis of core genes and Average Nucleotide Identity (ANIm) using draft genomic sequences identified new Bradyrhizobium species within strains of Clade I of Lmj endosymbiotic bacteria. Only one of these potentially new species has been defined, meanwhile the others are under process of characterization. The name ‘Bradyrhizobium valentinum’ sp. nov. was proposed for the defined species (type strain LmjM3T= CECT 8364T, LMG 2761T). The third topic was directed to conservation of endangered Lmj in its natural habitat. The relevant conclusion of this experimentation is that the symbiosis should be considered as a relevant factor in the conservation strategies for endangered legumes. First, we showed absence of bacteria able to nodulate Lmj in all the inspected ‘‘terra rossa’’ or alkaline red soils of the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands. Then, two efficient nitrogen fixing strains with Lmj plants, LmjC and LmjM3T, were selected as inoculum for seed coating. Two planting experiments were carried out in consecutive years under natural conditions in areas with edapho-climatic characteristics identical to those sustaining natural Lmj populations, and successful reproduction of the plant was achieved. The relevant conclusion from these assays was that the successful reproductive cycle was absolutely dependent on seedling inoculation with effective bradyrhizobia The forth topic deep into the analysis of the genomic of Lmj representative strains. To this end, draft genomic sequences of selected Lmj strains and type strains of Bradyrhizobium spp. were assembled. The comparison analysis of the draft genomic sequences of Lmj strains and related Bradyrhizobium species grouped in Clade I, revealed a high genomic homology among them, and allowed the definition of five potentially new species of Lmj nodulating bacteria. Also, based on the available draft genomic sequences, only three clusters of nod, fix and nif genes from Lmj strains were identified and showed to define a new symbiotic lineage, distant from that of B. canariense and B. japonicum bv. genistearum. The low diversity exhibited by the phylogenetic analysis of symbiotic genes contrast with the large diversity of strains as regards the housekeeping genes analyzed. Besides, the genomic analysis of a Lupinus angustifolius strain ISLU101, revealed the presence of an extrachromosomal replication origin homologous to repABC cluster from plasmid present in Bradyrhizobium spp BTAi1. This repABC cluster gene sequence allowed the identification of extrachromosomic replication origin in 19 out of 72 Bradyrhizobium strains from Lupinus spp., a highly significant result since the absence of plasmids in the Bradyrhizobium genus was traditionally assumed. The repABC gene sequences of these strains grouped them in a unique monophyletic group, related to B. sp. BTAi1 plasmid, but differentiated from the repABC gene cluster of plasmids in fast growing rhizobium strains. The last topic was focused on characterization of type III secreted effectors present in Lmj endosymbiotic bacteria. Type III secretion systems (T3SS) are specialized protein export machineries which can deliver effector proteins into plant cells. The presence of T3SS in rhizobia has frequently been related to the symbiotic nodulation host-range and may have a beneficial or detrimental effect on the symbiosis with legumes. In this context, the presence of T3SS in genomes of nine Lmj strains was investigated, and it was shown the presence of clusters encoding NopE type III-secreted protein similar to the NopE1 and NopE2 of B. diazoefficiens USDA 110T. The putative NopE protein of LmjC strain is at present being characterized regarding its structure and function.

La vivienda social como patrimonio urbano: análisis de la patrimonialización de tres Barrios de Promoción Oficial madrileños

Aunque los conjuntos de vivienda social carecen en Europa de un nivel de protección patrimonial comparable a otras áreas urbanas, las negociaciones que surgen a raíz del anuncio de su remodelación o rehabilitación resultan inexplicables si no se supone su aceptación como patrimonio por parte de algunos de los actores implicados. Nos encontraríamos entonces no con un repertorio patrimonial consolidado, sino ante un proceso de patrimonialización, entendido no sólo como el paso de la categoría de no-patrimonio a la de patrimonio mediante la protección jurídica o urbanística, sino también como la construcción del consenso social suficiente en torno la posesión de ciertos valores preexistentes, así como la producción y reproducción social e histórica de estos valores. Ante el incipiente proceso de patrimonialización de determinados Barrios de Promoción Oficial madrileños, la tesis aborda dos cuestiones fundamentales, los mecanismos que conducen a su construcción social e histórica como nuevos elementos patrimoniales, y la evolución y estado actual del conjunto de elementos eventualmente patrimonializables, los Barrios de Promoción Oficial madrileños. De esta forma, propone un modelo teórico del proceso de patrimonialización de los conjuntos de vivienda social, basado en la identificación de discursos, valores, sujetos y etapas, así como de su relación con las características físicas y sociales originales de los barrios y su evolución hasta la actualidad. Para ello, se reconstruye la evolución física, social y de la protección patrimonial de los Barrios de Promoción Oficial madrileños, y se analizan tres procesos concretos de patrimonialización, la participación de la Colonia del Tercio y Terol en la defensa ciudadana de las Colonias Históricas madrileñas (1973-1979), la incorporación de criterios patrimoniales en la rehabilitación integral del Poblado Dirigido de Caño Roto (1991-2004), y la protección patrimonial como obstáculo para la remodelación de la U.V.A. de Hortaleza (2004-2015). ABSTRACT Comparatively speaking, few social housing estates are legally protected as cultural heritage in Europe. However, when a physical intervention is announced, the ensuing negotiation often defies explanation unless one assumes that the estate is regarded as cultural heritage by some of the players involved. Therefore, one should not so much talk of social housing as heritage, but of the process of patrimonialisation, which refers not only to the change of these estates from the status of non-heritage to that of cultural heritage through their legal recognition, but also to the process that leads to the acknowledgment of certain values in these estates, and even the social and cultural shaping of these values. This thesis tackles two main issues: the mechanisms that lead to the social and historical construction of new heritage elements or repertoires, and the evolution and current status of the Barrios de Promoción Oficial in Madrid. It proposes a theoretical model of the process of patrimonialisation of social housing estates, based on the identification of discourses, values, subjects and phases, as well as its relationship with the original physical and social features of these estates and their further evolution up to the present. In order to do so, the changes in the physical and social features of the Barrios de Promoción Oficial and in their heritage protection are reconstructed, and three particular processes are analysed. These are the role of Colonia del Tercio y Terol in the citizens’ movement for the preservation of the Colonias Históricas in Madrid (1973-1979), the incorporation of conservation criteria in the refurbishment of Poblado Dirigido de Caño Roto (1991-2004), and heritage as an obstacle to urban renewal in U.V.A. de Hortaleza (2004-2015).

Conservation of early odontogenic signaling pathways in Aves

Teeth have been missing from birds (Aves) for at least 60 million years. However, in the chick oral cavity a rudiment forms that resembles the lamina stage of the mammalian molar tooth germ. We have addressed the molecular basis for this secondary loss of tooth formation in Aves by analyzing in chick embryos the status of molecular pathways known to regulate mouse tooth development. Similar to the mouse dental lamina, expression of Fgf8, Pitx2, Barx1, and Pax9 defines a potential chick odontogenic region. However, the expression of three molecules involved in tooth initiation, Bmp4, Msx1, and Msx2, are absent from the presumptive chick dental lamina. In chick mandibles, exogenous bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) induces Msx expression and together with fibroblast growth factor promotes the development of Sonic hedgehog expressing epithelial structures. Distinct epithelial appendages also were induced when chick mandibular epithelium was recombined with a tissue source of BMPs and fibroblast growth factors, chick skin mesenchyme. These results show that, although latent, the early signaling pathways involved in odontogenesis remain inducible in Aves and suggest that loss of odontogenic Bmp4 expression may be responsible for the early arrest of tooth development in living birds.

Efetividade das áreas protegidas para a conservação da natureza sob a abordagem dos serviços ecossistêmicos na bacia do rio Corumbataí

A sustentabilidade da paisagem trata-se de um tema central no que se refere às questões de conservação e desenvolvimento de paisagens altamente antropizadas. Está embasada nos conceitos tradicionais de desenvolvimento sustentável, que visam balancear o desenvolvimento humano com a proteção ambiental, pautada na equidade intra e extra-geração. Considera, ainda, os conceitos de bem-estar humano nesta esfera. Paralelamente, os conceitos de serviços ecossistêmicos reconhecem a dependência das atividades antrópicas e seu bem-estar à qualidade dos ecossistemas, reacendendo os debates sobre capital natural e desenvolvimento sustentável. Neste contexto, este trabalho aborda a sustentabilidade da paisagem questionando a potencialidade dos remanescentes florestais em fornecer, de maneira equilibrada, diferentes serviços ecossistêmicos na bacia do rio Corumbataí. Para isso, o trabalho foi dividido em duas etapas. A primeira buscou analisar questões de demanda e oferta por múltiplos serviços ecossistêmicos (controle de erosão, regulação hídrica, regulação microclimática, informação estética e qualidade de habitat). Isso baseado em indicadores da paisagem, como a dinâmica do uso do solo e padrões do meio físico e antrópico. A segunda investigou a viabilidade de integrar o sinergismo entre os serviços de controle de erosão e qualidade de habitat às prioridades de conservação e restauração florestal. Isso baseado no cenário atual da paisagem e por meio de diferentes simulações de incremento em 10% da cobertura florestal na paisagem, inserindo florestas nos locais de alta erodibilidade (situação criteriosa) ou de forma randômica. Os resultados demonstraram que, apesar do aumento de 60% na cobertura florestal durante os últimos 30 anos, apenas 37% das florestas possuem alto potencial para ofertar serviços ecossistêmicos e que, quando ponderadas perante as demandas da paisagem, apenas 20% das florestas encontram-se em equilíbrio. Além disso, foi verificado sinergismo entre os serviços de controle de erosão e qualidade de habitat em aproximadamente 80% da cobertura florestal. No entanto, nos cenários de restauração florestal, o sinergismo foi alcançado em todas as situações, sejam elas criteriosas ou randômicas. Deste modo, ficou evidente o limite das florestas e áreas protegidas como potenciais prestadoras de serviços ecossistêmicos na paisagem. Também ficou evidente que, em paisagens com alto grau de fragmentação e baixa proporção florestal, os processos de restauração não necessariamente devem almejar o sinergismo entre serviços ecossistêmicos. Por fim, atribui-se grande importância ao papel das áreas agrícolas e pastagens para compensar demandas, restaurar serviços ecossistêmicos, almejando, portanto, a sustentabilidade da paisagem.

Adequabilidade ambiental dos biomas brasileiros à ocorrência do lobo-guará (Chrysocyon brachyurus) e efeitos da composição da paisagem em sua ecologia espacial, atividade e movimentação

O lobo-guará é uma espécie de ampla distribuição na América do Sul, tendo no Brasil sua maior área de ocorrência. No entanto, as modificações das áreas naturais principalmente destinadas à agropecuária tornam a espécie vulnerável à extinção. A investigação objetivou conhecer em larga escala a área de distribuição potencial gerada por atributos ambientais favoráveis e áreas adequadas à sua ocorrência nos biomas brasileiros e investigar como a espécie responde à estrutura da paisagem, avaliando os efeitos de ambientes modificados pelo homem na sua ecologia espacial, nos padrões de atividade e na movimentação. Modelos de distribuição de espécie foram gerados pelo Maxent, utilizando uma base de pontos de localização de presença a partir de 2000 para o Cerrado (Ce), Pantanal (Pa), Mata Atlântica (MA) e Pampas (Pp) e um conjunto de onze variáveis ambientais não correlacionadas (topográficas, climáticas e paisagísticas). Para análises de ecologia espacial, das atividades e de movimentação, utilizou-se localizações de telemetria (GPS) de animais habitantes de áreas protegidas (AP), e indivíduos em paisagens modificados (AM). Análises de áreas de vida (AV) foram realizadas utilizando o estimador AKDE e associadas com classificação da paisagem local. Os modelos de distribuição do lobo-guará apresentaram uma área de distribuição potencial de 78% do total dos biomas. Apesar de possuírem grandes proporções de áreas adequadas (Ce, 90%; Pa, 93%; MA, 65% e Pp, 6%), somente um pequeno percentual (4,4% do Ce e 4,7% da MA) possui adequabilidade ambiental acima de 50%. Dos atributos que favorecem sua presença, a altitude (para todos os biomas), a precipitação (Ce e Pa), diferenças de temperatura e uso e cobertura do solo (Ma e Pp) foram os mais importantes. Em nível local, animais apresentaram média de AV de 90Km2 em AP e 41Km2 em AM, uma diferença significativa (p<0,01) com áreas diretamente proporcionais ao percentual de áreas naturais na paisagem. Ainda, apesar dos padrões regulares de atividade não mostrarem grandes mudanças, o período de repouso foi significativamente maior (p<0,01) entre os animais AM (46% do dia) que em animais AP (25% do dia). Lobos-guarás de AP e AM não apresentaram grandes diferenças no deslocamento diário com média geral de 14km caminhados por dia, com comprimentos de passos de 1Km. Diferenças no comprimento de passo foram relacionadas à composição da diversidade de contato de classes da paisagem com a proporção de ambientes naturais no passo (quanto maior as variáveis, maior o passo). Passos menores refletem menor persistência de movimento interferindo no deslocamento diário. Com os resultados desse estudo identificou-se a MA e Pa muito importantes, mas o Ce como bioma mais adequado à espécie. Foram encontrados indícios de que a estrutura de suas AV, o uso da paisagem, as atividades e movimentação são afetados pela paisagem modificada. Isso pode comprometer a viabilidade populacional, interferindo na presença em uma área e refletindo no seu potencial de distribuição. As estratégias de manejo de uso do solo, e a recuperação e conexão de áreas adequadas são urgentes e necessárias para que o lobo-guará permaneça presente e funcional nas paisagens dos biomas brasileiros.