Solution processible Cu2SnS3 thin films for cost effective photovoltaics: Characterization

Thin films of Cu2SnS3 (CTS) were deposited by the facile solution processed sol-gel route followed by a low-temperature annealing. The Cu-Sn-thiourea complex formation was analysed using Fourier Transform Infrared spectrophotometer (FTIR). The various phase transformations and the deposition temperature range for the initial precursor solution was determined using Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) studies revealed the tetragonal phase formation of the CTS annealed films. Raman spectroscopy studies further confirmed the tetragonal phase formation and the absence of any deterioratory secondary phases. The morphological investigations and compositional analysis of the films were determined using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) respectively. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) was used to estimate the surface roughness of 1.3 nm. The absorption coefficient was found to be 10(4) cm(-1) and bandgap 1.3 eV which qualifies CTS to be a potential candidate for photovoltaic applications. The refractive index, extinction coefficient and relative permittivity of the film were measured by Spectroscopic ellipsometry. Hall effect measurements, indicated the p type nature of the films with a hole concentration of 2 x 10(18) cm(-3), electrical conductivity of 9 S/cm and a hole mobility of 29 cm(2)/V. The properties of CTS as deduced from the current study, present CTS as a potential absorber layer material for thin film solar cells. (C) 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Enhanced UV detection by non-polar epitaxial GaN films

Nonpolar a-GaN (11-20) epilayers were grown on r-plane (1-102) sapphire substrates using plasma assisted molecular beam epitaxy. High resolution x-ray diffractometer confirmed the orientation of the grown film. Effect of the Ga/N ratio on the morphology and strain of a-GaN epilayers was compared and the best condition was obtained for the nitrogen flow of 1 sccm. Atomic force microscopy was used to analyze the surface morphology while the strain in the film was quantitatively measured using Raman spectroscopy and qualitatively analyzed by reciprocal space mapping technique. UV photo response of a-GaN film was measured after fabricating a metal-semiconductor-metal structure over the film with gold metal. The external quantum efficiency of the photodetectors fabricated in the (0002) polar and (11-20) nonpolar growth directions were compared in terms of responsivity and nonpolar GaN showed the best sensitivity at the cost of comparatively slow response time. (C) 2015 Author(s). All article content, except where otherwise noted, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

Ferroelectric origin in one-dimensional undoped ZnO towards high electromechanical response

Ferroelectricity in ZnO is an unlikely physical phenomenon. Here, we show ferroelectricity in undoped 001] ZnO nanorods due to zinc vacancies. Generation of ferroelectricity in a ZnO nanorod effectively increases its piezoelectricity and turns the ZnO nanorod into an ultrahigh-piezoelectric material. Here using piezoelectric force microscopy (PFM), it is observed that increasing the frequency of the AC excitation electric field decreases the effective d(33). Subsequently, the existence of a reversible permanent electric dipole is also found from the P-E hysteresis loop of the ZnO nanorods. Under a high resolution transmission electron microscope (HRTEM), we observe a zinc blende stacking in the wurtzite stacking of a single nanorod along the growth axis. The zinc blende nature of this defect is also supported by the X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Raman spectra. The presence of zinc vacancies in this basal stacking fault modulates p-d hybridization of the ZnO nanorod and produces a magnetic moment through the adjacent oxygen ions. This in turn induces a reversible electric dipole in the non-centrosymmetric nanostructure and is responsible for the ultrahigh-piezoelectric response in these undoped ZnO nanorods. We reveal that this defect engineered ZnO can be considered to be in the competitive class of ultrahigh-piezoelectric nanomaterials for energy harvesting and electromechanical device fabrication.

Nanomechanical Mapping, Hierarchical Polymer Dynamics, and Miscibility in the Presence of Chain-End Grafted Nanoparticles

To improve the spatial distribution of nano particles in a polymeric host and to enhance the interfacial interaction with the host, the use of chain-end grafted nanoparticle has gained popularity in the field of polymeric nanocomposites. Besides changing the material properties of the host, these grafted nanoparticles strongly alter the dynamics of the polymer chain at both local and cooperative length scales (relaxations) by manipulating the enthalpic and entropic interactions. It is difficult to map the distribution of these chain-end grafted nanoparticles in the blend by conventional techniques, and herein, we attempted to characterize it by unique technique(s) like peak force quantitative nanomechanical mapping (PFQNM) through AFM (atomic force microscopy) imaging and dielectric relaxation spectroscopy (DRS). Such techniques, besides shedding light on the spatial distribution of the nanoparticles, also give critical information on the changing elasticity at smaller length scales and hierarchical polymer chain dynamics in the vicinity of the nanoparticles. The effect of one-dimensional rodlike multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWNTs), with the characteristic dimension of the order of the radius of gyration of the polymeric chain, on the phase miscibility and chain dynamics in a classical LCST mixture of polystyrene/ poly(vinyl methyl ether) (PS/PVME) was examined in detail using the above techniques. In order to tune the localization of the nanotubes, different molecular weights of PS (13, 31, and 46 kDa), synthesized using RAFT (reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer) polymerization, was grafted onto MWNTs in situ. The thermodynamic miscibility in the blends was assessed by low-amplitude isochronal temperature sweeps, the spatial distribution of MWNTs in the blends was evaluated by PFQNM, and the hierarchical polymer chain dynamics was studied by DRS. It was observed that the miscibility, concentration fluctuation, and cooperative relaxations of the PS/PVME blends are strongly governed by the spatial distribution of MWNTs in the blends. These findings should help guide theories and simulations of hierarchical chain dynamics in LCST mixtures containing rodlike nanoparticles.

Study of band offsets at the Cu2SnS3/In2O3: Sn interface using x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy

Cu2SnS3 thins films were deposited onto In2O3: Sn coated soda lime glass substrates by spin coating technique. The films have been structurally characterized using x-ray Diffraction (XRD) and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). The morphology of the films was studied using Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM). The optical properties of the films were determined using UV-vis-NIR spectrophotometer. The electrical properties were measured using Hall effect measurements. The energy band offsets at the Cu2SnS3/In2O3: Sn interface were calculated using x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The valence band offset was found to be -3.4 +/- 0.24 eV. From the valence band offset value, the conduction band offset is calculated to be -1.95 +/- 0.34 eV. The energy band alignment indicates a type-II misaligned heterostructure formation.

Nanomechanical Mapping, Hierarchical Polymer Dynamics, and Miscibility in the Presence of Chain-End Grafted Nanoparticles

To improve the spatial distribution of nano particles in a polymeric host and to enhance the interfacial interaction with the host, the use of chain-end grafted nanoparticle has gained popularity in the field of polymeric nanocomposites. Besides changing the material properties of the host, these grafted nanoparticles strongly alter the dynamics of the polymer chain at both local and cooperative length scales (relaxations) by manipulating the enthalpic and entropic interactions. It is difficult to map the distribution of these chain-end grafted nanoparticles in the blend by conventional techniques, and herein, we attempted to characterize it by unique technique(s) like peak force quantitative nanomechanical mapping (PFQNM) through AFM (atomic force microscopy) imaging and dielectric relaxation spectroscopy (DRS). Such techniques, besides shedding light on the spatial distribution of the nanoparticles, also give critical information on the changing elasticity at smaller length scales and hierarchical polymer chain dynamics in the vicinity of the nanoparticles. The effect of one-dimensional rodlike multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWNTs), with the characteristic dimension of the order of the radius of gyration of the polymeric chain, on the phase miscibility and chain dynamics in a classical LCST mixture of polystyrene/ poly(vinyl methyl ether) (PS/PVME) was examined in detail using the above techniques. In order to tune the localization of the nanotubes, different molecular weights of PS (13, 31, and 46 kDa), synthesized using RAFT (reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer) polymerization, was grafted onto MWNTs in situ. The thermodynamic miscibility in the blends was assessed by low-amplitude isochronal temperature sweeps, the spatial distribution of MWNTs in the blends was evaluated by PFQNM, and the hierarchical polymer chain dynamics was studied by DRS. It was observed that the miscibility, concentration fluctuation, and cooperative relaxations of the PS/PVME blends are strongly governed by the spatial distribution of MWNTs in the blends. These findings should help guide theories and simulations of hierarchical chain dynamics in LCST mixtures containing rodlike nanoparticles.

Study of band offsets at the Cu2SnS3/In2O3: Sn interface using x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy

Cu2SnS3 thins films were deposited onto In2O3: Sn coated soda lime glass substrates by spin coating technique. The films have been structurally characterized using x-ray Diffraction (XRD) and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). The morphology of the films was studied using Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM). The optical properties of the films were determined using UV-vis-NIR spectrophotometer. The electrical properties were measured using Hall effect measurements. The energy band offsets at the Cu2SnS3/In2O3: Sn interface were calculated using x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The valence band offset was found to be -3.4 +/- 0.24 eV. From the valence band offset value, the conduction band offset is calculated to be -1.95 +/- 0.34 eV. The energy band alignment indicates a type-II misaligned heterostructure formation.

Structural, Optical, and Piezoelectric Response of Lead-Free Ba0.95Mg0.05Zr0.1Ti0.9O3 Nanocrystalline Powder

Nanocrystalline powders of Ba1-xMgxZr0.1Ti0.9O3 (x = 0.025-0.1) were synthesized via citrate assisted sol-gel method. Interestingly, the one with x = 0.05 in the system Ba1-xMgxZr0.1Ti0.9O3 exhibited fairly good piezoelectric response aside from the other physical properties. The phase and structural confirmation of synthesized powder was established by X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) and Raman Spectroscopic techniques. Two distinct Raman bands i.e., 303 and 723 cm(-1) characteristic of tetragonal phase were observed. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was performed to evaluate the phase decomposition of the as-synthesized Ba0.95Mg0.05Zr0.1Ti0.9O3 sample as a function of temperature. The average crystallite size associated with Ba0.95Mg0.05Zr0.1Ti0.9O3 was calculated using Scherrer formula based on the XRD data and was found to be 25 nm. However, Scanning and Transmission Electron Microscopy studies revealed the average crystallite size to be in the range of 30-40 nm, respectively. Kubelka-Munk function was employed to determine the optical band gap of these nanocrystallites. A piezoelectric response of 26 pm/V was observed for Ba0.95Mg0.05Zr0.1Ti0.9O3 nanocrystal by Piezoresponse Force Microscopy (PFM) technique. Photoluminescence (PL) study carried out on these nanocrystals exhibited a blue emission (470 nm) at room temperature.

Magnetic properties and magnetic domain structure of bulk glass forming Nd60Al10Fe20Co10 alloy

The transition from hard to soft magnetic behaviour with increasing quenching rate is shown for Nd60WAl10Fe20Co10 melt-spun ribbons with different thickness. Microstructure and magnetic domain structure of ribbons were studied by magnetic force microscopy (MFM). Particle sizes < 5 nm decreasing gradually with increasing quenching rate were deduced from topographic images which differ from large-scale magnetic domains with a periodicity of about 350 nm in all ribbons irrespective the coercivity. This indicates that the magnetic properties of the alloy are governed by interaction of small magnetic particles. It is concluded that the presence of short-range-ordered structures with a local ordering similar to the Al metastable Nd-Fe binary phase is responsible for the hard magnetic properties in samples subjected to relatively low quenching rate.

Domain structure of hard magnetic NdAlFeCo bulk metallic glass

Magnetic domain structure of hard magnetic Nd60Al10Fe20Co10 bulk metallic glass (BMG) has been studied by using magnetic force microscopy. In the magnetic force images it is shown that the exchange interaction type magnetic domains with a period of about 360 nm do exist in the BMG, which is believed to be associated with the appearance of hard-magnetic properties in this system. As the scale of the magnetic domain is much larger than the size of the short-range ordered atomic clusters existing in the BMG, it is believed that the large areas of magnetic contrast are actually a collection of a group of clusters aligned in parallel by strong exchange coupling interaction. After fully crystallization, the BMG exhibits paramagnetism. No obvious magnetic contrast is observed in the magnetic force images of fully crystallized samples, except for a small quantity of ferromagnetic crystalline phase with low coercivity and an average size of 900 nm.

Quantifying the Effects of Contact Duration, Loading Rate, and Approach Velocity on P-Selectin-PSGL-1 Interactions Using AFM

Kinetics and its regulation by extrinsic physical factors govern selectin-ligand interactions that mediate tethering and rolling of circulating cells on the vessel wall under hemodynamic forces. While the force regulation of off-rate for dissociation of selectin-ligand bonds has been extensively studied, much less is known about how transport impacts the on-rate for association of these bonds and their stability. We used atomic force microscopy (AFM) to quantify how the contact duration, loading rate, and approach velocity affected kinetic rates and strength of bonds of P-selectin interacting with P-selectin glycoprotein ligand I (PSGL-1). We found a saturable relationship between the contact time and the rupture force, a biphasic relationship between the adhesion probability and the retraction velocity, a piece-wise linear relationship between the rupture force and the logarithm of the loading rate, and a threshold relationship between the approach velocity and the rupture force. These results provide new insights into how physical factors regulate receptor-ligand interactions.

Nonlinear Analysis of Oscillatory Indentation in Elastic and Viscoelastic Solids

Determining the mechanical properties at micro- and nanometer length scales using nanoindentation or atomic force microscopy is important to many areas of science and engineering. Here we establish equations for obtaining storage and loss modulus from oscillatory indentations by performing a nonlinear analysis of conical and spherical indentation in elastic and viscoelastic solids. We show that, when the conical indenter is driven by a sinusoidal force, the square of displacement is a sinusoidal function of time, not the displacement itself, which is commonly assumed. Similar conclusions hold for spherical indentations. Well-known difficulties associated with measuring contact area and correcting thermal drift may be circumvented using the newly derived equations. These results may help improve methods of using oscillatory indentation for determining elastic and viscoelastic properties of solids.

Domain structure of a Nd60Al10Fe20Co10 bulk metallic glass

Magnetic domain structure of Nd60Al10Fe20Co10 bulk metallic glass (BMG) has been studied by using magnetic-force microscopy. In the magnetic-force images it is shown that the exchange-interaction-type magnetic domains with a period of about 360 nm do exist in the BMG, which is believed to be associated with the appearance of hard-magnetic properties in this system. The existence of the large-scale domains demonstrates that the magnetic moments of a great deal of short-scale ordered atomic clusters in the BMG have been aligned by exchange coupling. Annealing at 715 K leads to partial crystallization of the BMG. However, the exchange coupling is stronger in the annealed sample, which is considered to arise from the increase of transition-metal concentration in the amorphous phase due to the precipitation of Nd crystalline phase.

Efficiency measurement of GaN-based quantum well and light-emitting diode structures grown on silicon substrates

The optical efficiency of GaN-based multiple quantum well (MQW) and light emitting diode (LED) structures grown on Si(111) substrates by metal-organic vapor phase epitaxy was measured and compared with equivalent structures on sapphire. The crystalline quality of the LED structures was comprehensively characterized using x-ray diffraction, atomic force microscopy, and plan-view transmission electron microscopy. A room temperature photoluminescence (PL) internal quantum efficiency (IQE) as high as 58% has been achieved in an InGaN/GaN MQW on Si, emitting at 460 nm. This is the highest reported PL-IQE of a c-plane GaN-based MQW on Si, and the radiative efficiency of this sample compares well with similar structures grown on sapphire. Processed LED devices on Si also show good electroluminescence (EL) performance, including a forward bias voltage of ∼3.5 V at 20 mA and a light output power of 1 mW at 45 mA from a 500 ×500 μm2 planar device without the use of any additional techniques to enhance the output coupling. The extraction efficiency of the LED devices was calculated, and the EL-IQE was then estimated to have a maximum value of 33% at a current density of 4 A cm-2, dropping to 30% at a current density of 40 A cm-2 for a planar LED device on Si emitting at 455 nm. The EL-IQE was clearly observed to increase as the structural quality of the material increased for devices on both sapphire and Si substrates. © 2011 American Institute of Physics.

ZnO film based surface acoustic wave micro-pump

In this study, a micro-pump unit based on surface acoustic wave (SAW) on piezoelectric ZnO film is designed and fabricated as a micro-fluidic device. It employs a mechanical wave, which is generated electrically using an aluminum interdigital transducer (IDT), and propagates on the surface of the ZnO film. The ZnO film was used in this study because it has a high electromechanical coefficient and an excellent bonding with various substrate materials, in particular silicon. The sputtering parameters for ZnO film deposition have been optimized, and the ZnO films with different thickness from 1 micron to 5.5 microns were prepared. The film properties have been characterized using different methods, such as scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and atomic force microscopy. Aluminum IDT with a finger width and spacing of 8 microns was patterned on the ZnO film using a lift-off process. The frequency generated was measured using a network analyzer, and it varies from 130 MHz to 180 MHz as a function of film thickness. A signal generator was used to generate the frequency with a power amplifier to amplify the signal, which was then applied to aluminum IDT to generate the surface acoustic wave. If a liquid droplet exists on the surface carrying the acoustic wave, the energy and the momentum of the SAW will be coupled into the fluid, causing the liquid to vibrate and move on film surface. The strength of this movement is determined by the applied voltage and frequency. The volume of the liquid drop loaded on the SAW device in this study is of several hundreds of nanoliters. The movement of the liquid inside the droplet and also on the ZnO film surface can be demonstrated. The performance of ZnO SAW device was characterized as a function of film thickness. © 2007 IOP Publishing Ltd.