Chloride ingress through alkali activated slag concretes

Alkali activated slag (AAS) is a credible alternative to Portland cement (PC) based binder systems. The superior strength gain and low embodied carbon make it a potential binder for next generation concretes. However there is little known about the long term durability of AAS systems, especially the chloride transport and subsequent corrosion of reinforcing steel.
In this study, chloride transport through 12 AAS concretes with different alkali concentrations (Na2O% of mass of slag) and different modulus (Ms) of sodium silicate solution activator was investigated. A non-steady state chloride diffusion test was used for this study due to its similarity to the real exposure environment in terms of chloride transport through concrete. The results showed that the chloride concentration at the surface (Cs) of AAS concretes was higher than that for PC concrete.
However, lower non-steady state chloride diffusion coefficient (Dnssd) was obtained for the AAS concretes. The Dnssd of the AAS concretes decreased with the increase of Na2O% and Ms of 1.50 gave the lowest Dnssd. The results are encouraging and it can be concluded that AAS concrete offers a superior performance in terms of chloride transport.

Biocompatibility of Calcium Phosphate Bone Cement with Optimised Mechanical Properties

The broad aim of this work was to investigate and optimise the properties of calcium phosphate bone cements (CPCs) for use in vertebroplasty to achieve effective primary fixation of spinal fractures. The incorporation of collagen, both bovine and from a marine sponge (Chondrosia reniformis), into a CPC was investigated. The biological properties of the CPC and collagen-CPC composites were assessed in vitro through the use of human bone marrow stromal cells. Cytotoxicity, proliferation and osteoblastic differentiation were evaluated using lactate dehydrogenase, PicoGreen and alkaline phosphatase activity assays respectively. The addition of both types of collagen resulted in an increase in cytotoxicity, albeit not to a clinically relevant level. Cellular proliferation after 1, 7 and 14 days was unchanged. The osteogenic potential of the CPC was reduced through the addition of bovine collagen but remained unchanged in the case of the marine collagen. These findings, coupled with previous work showing that incorporation of marine collagen in this way can improve the physical properties of CPCs, suggest that such a composite may offer an alternative to CPCs in applications where low setting times and higher mechanical stability are important.

The effect of variability in the powder/liquid ratio on the strength of zinc phosphate cement

Aim. To investigate (a) variability in powder/liquid proportioning and (b) effect of variability on diametral tensile strength (DTS), in a zinc phosphate cement. Statistical analyses (α = 0.05) were by Student's t-test in the case of powder/liquid ratio and one-way ANOVA and Tukey HSD for pair-wise comparisons of mean DTS. The Null hypotheses were that (a) the powder-liquid mixing ratios would not differ from the manufacturer's recommended ratio (b) DTS of the set cement samples using the extreme powder/liquid ratios would not differ from those made using the recommended ratio. 

Methodology. 34 dental students dispensed the components according to the manufacturer's instructions. The maximum and minimum powder/liquid ratios, together with the manufacturer's recommended ratio, were used to prepare samples for DTS testing. 

Results. Powder/liquid ratios ranged from 2.386 to 1.018. The mean ratio (1.644) was not significantly different from the recommended value of 1.718 (P = 0.189). DTS values for the maximum and minimum ratios were both significantly different from each other (P < 0.001) and from the mean value obtained from the recommended ratio (P < 0.001). 

Conclusions. Variability exists in powder/liquid ratio for hand dispensed zinc phosphate cement. This variability can affect the DTS of the set material.

Critical evaluation of pulse-echo ultrasonic test method for the determination of setting and mechanical properties of acrylic bone cement: Influence of mixing technique

Currently there is no reliable objective method to quantify the setting properties of acrylic bone cements within an operating theatre environment. Ultrasonic technology can be used to determine the acoustic properties of the polymerising bone cement, which are linked to material properties and provide indications of the physical and chemical changes occurring within the cement. The focus of this study was the critical evaluation of pulse-echo ultrasonic test method in determining the setting and mechanical properties of three different acrylic bone cement when prepared under atmospheric and vacuum mixing conditions. Results indicated that the ultrasonic pulse-echo technique provided a highly reproducible and accurate method of monitoring the polymerisation reaction and indicating the principal setting parameters when compared to ISO 5833 standard, irrespective of the acrylic bone cement or mixing method used. However, applying the same test method to predict the final mechanical properties of acrylic bone cement did not prove a wholly accurate approach. Inhomogeneities within the cement microstructure and specimen geometry were found to have a significant influence on mechanical property predictions. Consideration of all the results suggests that the non-invasive and non-destructive pulse-echo ultrasonic test method is an effective and reliable method for following the full polymerisation reaction of acrylic bone cement in real-time and then determining the setting properties within a surgical theatre environment. However the application of similar technology for predicting the final mechanical properties of acrylic bone cement on a consistent basis may prove difficult.

Optimisation of a two-liquid component pre-filled acrylic bone cement system: A design of experiments approach to optimise cement final properties

The initial composition of acrylic bone cement along with the mixing and delivery technique used can influence its final properties and therefore its clinical success in vivo. The polymerisation of acrylic bone cement is complex with a number of processes happening simultaneously. Acrylic bone cement mixing and delivery systems have undergone several design changes in their advancement, although the cement constituents themselves have remained unchanged since they were first used. This study was conducted to determine the factors that had the greatest effect on the final properties of acrylic bone cement using a pre-filled bone cement mixing and delivery system. A design of experiments (DoE) approach was used to determine the impact of the factors associated with this mixing and delivery method on the final properties of the cement produced. The DoE illustrated that all factors present within this study had a significant impact on the final properties of the cement. An optimum cement composition was hypothesised and tested. This optimum recipe produced cement with final mechanical and thermal properties within the clinical guidelines and stated by ISO 5833 (International Standard Organisation (ISO), International standard 5833: implants for surgery—acrylic resin cements, 2002), however the low setting times observed would not be clinically viable and could result in complications during the surgical technique. As a result further development would be required to improve the setting time of the cement in order for it to be deemed suitable for use in total joint replacement surgery.

Carboxyl functionalised MWCNT/Polymethyl methacrylate bone cement for orthopaedic applications

The incorporation of carboxyl functionalised multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT-COOH) into a leading proprietary grade orthopaedic bone cement (Simplex PTM) at 0.1 wt% has been investigated. Resultant static and fatigue mechanical properties, in addition to thermal and polymerisation properties, have been determined. Significant improvements (p 0.001) in bending strength (42%), bending modulus (55%) and fracture toughness (22%) were demonstrated. Fatigue properties were improved (p 0.001), with mean number of cycles to failure and fatigue performance index being increased by 64% and 52%, respectively. Thermal necrosis index values at 44C and 55C were significantly reduced (p 0.001) (28% and 27%) versus the control. Furthermore, the onset of polymerisation increased by 58% (p < 0.001), as did the duration of the polymerisation reaction (52%). Peak energy during polymerisation increased by 672% (p < 0.001). Peak area of polymerisation increased by 116% (p < 0.001) indicating that the incorporation of MWCNT-COOH reduced the rate of polymerisation significantly. A non-significant reduction (8%) in percentage monomer conversion was also recorded. Raman spectroscopy clearly showed that the addition of MWCNT-COOH increased the ratio between normalised intensities of the G-Band and D-Band (IG/ID), and also increased the theoretical compressive strain (1.72%) exerted on the MWCNT-COOH by the Simplex PTM cement matrix. Therefore, demonstrating a level of chemical interactivity between the MWCNT-COOH and the Simplex PTM bone cement exists and consequently a more effective mechanism for successful transfer of mechanical load. The extent of homogenous dispersion of the MWCNT-COOH throughout the bone cement was determined using Raman mapping. Ke

Nanoscale reinforced orthopaedic bone cement with graphene oxide - a possible solution to aseptic loosening of cemented hip implants? Preliminary results of an ongoing study

Hip replacement surgery is amongst the most common orthopaedic operations performed in the UK. Aseptic loosening is responsible for 40% of hip revision procedures. Aseptic loosening is a result of cement mantle fatigue. The aim of the current study is to analyse the effect of nanoscale Graphene Oxide (GO) on the mechanical properties of orthopaedic bone cement. Study Design A experimental thermal and mechanical analysis was conducted in a laboratory set up conforming to international standards for bone cement testing according to ISO 5583. Testing was performed on control cement samples of Colacryl bone cement, and additional samples reinforced with variable wt% of Graphene Oxide containing composites – 0.1%, 0.25%, 0.5% and 1.0% GO loading. Pilot Data Porosity demonstrated a linear relationship with increasing wt% loading compared to control (p<0.001). Thermal characterisation demonstrated maximal temperature during polymerization, and generated exotherm were inversely proportional to w%t loading (p<0.05) Fatigue strength performed on the control and 0.1 and 0.25%wt loadings of GO demonstrate increased average cycles to failure compared to control specimens. A right shift of the Weibull curve was demonstrated for both wt% available currently. Logistic regression analysis for failure demonstrated significant increases in number of cycles to failure for both specimens compared to a control (p<0.001). Forward Plan Early results convey positive benefits at low wt% loadings of GO containing bone cement. Study completion and further analysis is required in order to elude to the optimum w%t of GO which conveys the greatest mechanical advantage.

Influence of rheology on the quality of surface finish of cement-based mortars

Aesthetics of concrete structures is directly related to the quality of their surface finish. The objective of this investigation was to examine the effect of rheological properties of cement-based mortars on the quality of their surface finish. The study was divided into two phases. Firstly, the influence of the mix composition of mortars, viz. the water to cement (w/c) ratio, the sand content and the superplasticiser (SP) dosage on their rheology was evaluated. Secondly, the surface finish quality was characterised and related to the rheology of the studied systems. Rheology of these materials, i.e. the yield value, was measured using a vane viscometer. The quality of the surface finish was assessed by quantification of the surface air voids by analysing digital photographs of the mould finished sample surfaces. It was found that an increase in the w/c ratio and the SP content decreased the yield value, whilst the increase in the sand content had an opposite effect. When the surface quality is concerned, an increase in the yield value was found to increase the total content of the surface air voids and especially those with size smaller than 1 mm in diameter. Moreover, the analysis of the location of the surface air voids along the height of the sample revealed that with the increase in the yield value their concentration was higher in the bottom section of the analysed samples.

Zinc Phosphate Cement: Variations in proportioning affects dimetral tensile strength

Objectives: To quantify variability in hand proportioning of zinc phosphate cement among a cohort of dental undergraduates and to determine the effect of any such variability on the diametral tensile strength (DTS) of the set cement. The null hypothesis was that such variability has no effect on DTS. 
Methods: Thirty-four operators dispensed a zinc phosphate cement [Fleck's® Cement] according to the manufacturers' instructions. The mass of powder and liquid dispensed was recorded. Cylindrical specimens (n = 2 x 34) of dimensions 6mm x 3mm were prepared using a stainless steel split mould. The maximum mass of powder and the minimum volume of liquid were used as one extreme ratio and the minimum mass of powder and the maximum volume of liquid used on the other extreme. The manufacturers' recommended ratio was also tested (n=34).The samples were left to set for one hour before being transferred into distilled water for 48 hours. Compression across a diameter was carried out using a universal testing machine, H10KS [Tinius Olsen], at a constant crosshead speed of 0.75 ±0.25 mm/min. Statistical analyses (α = 0.05) were by Student's t-test for the powder/liquid ratio and one-way ANOVA and Tukey HSD for for pair-wise comparisons of mean DTS. Tests were carried out for normality and constant variability. 
Results: The mean (range) amount of powder dispensed was 0.863g (0.531-1.216)g. The mean (range) amount of liquid dispensed was 0.341ml (0.265-0.394)ml. The manufacturer's recommended amounts were 0.8g of powder and 0.3ml of liquid. The mean powder/liquid ratio was not significantly different from the manufacturer's recommended value (p=0.64). Mean (SD) DTS were (MPa) max: 7.19(1.50), min: 2.65(1.01), manufacturer: 6.01(1.30). All pair-wise comparisons were significantly different (p<0.001). 
Conclusions: Variability exists in the hand proportioning powder and liquid components of zinc phosphate cement. This variability can affect the DTS of zinc phosphate cement.

The Role of Water Content and Paste Proportion on Physico-mechanical Properties of Alkali Activated Fly Ash–Ggbs Concrete

The growth of the construction industry worldwide poses a serious concern on the sustainability of the building material production chain, mainly due to the carbon emissions related to the production of Portland cement. On the other hand, valuable materials from waste streams, particularly from the metallurgical industry, are not used at their full potential. Alkali activated concrete (AAC) has emerged in the last years as a promising alternative to traditional Portland cement based concrete for some applications. However, despite showing remarkable strength and durability potential, its utilisation is not widespread, mainly due to the lack of broadly accepted standards for the selection of suitable mix recipes fulfilling design requirements, in particular workability, setting time and strength. In this paper, a contribution towards the design development of AAC synthetized from pulverised fuel ash (60%) and ground granulated blast furnace slag (40%) activated with a solution of sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate is proposed. Results from a first batch of mixes indicated that water content influences the setting time and that paste content is a key parameter for controlling strength development and workability. The investigation indicated that, for the given raw materials and activator compositions, a minimum water to solid (w/s) ratio of 0.37 was needed for an initial setting time of about 1 hour. Further work with paste content in the range of 30% to 33% determined the relationship between workability and strength development and w/s ratio and paste content. Strengths in the range of 50 - 60 MPa were achieved.