Glucocorticoids enhance in vivo exposure-based therapy outcome in spider phobia

BACKGROUND: Preclinical and clinical studies indicate that the administration of glucocorticoids may promote fear extinction processes. In particular, it has been shown that glucocorticoids enhance virtual reality based exposure therapy of fear of heights. Here, we investigate whether glucocorticoids enhance the outcome of in vivo exposure-based group therapy of spider phobia. METHODS: In a double blind, block-randomized, placebo-controlled, between-subject study design, 22 patients with specific phobia of spiders were treated with two sessions of in vivo exposure-based group therapy. Cortisol (20 mg) or placebo was orally administered 1 hr before each therapy session. Patients returned for a follow-up assessment one month after therapy. RESULTS: Exposure-based group therapy led to a significant decrease in phobic symptoms as assessed with the Fear of Spiders Questionnaire (FSQ) from pretreatment to immediate posttreatment and to follow-up. The administration of cortisol to exposure therapy resulted in increased salivary cortisol concentrations and a significantly greater reduction in fear of spiders (FSQ) as compared to placebo at follow-up, but not immediately posttreatment. Furthermore, cortisol-treated patients reported significantly less anxiety during standardized exposure to living spiders at follow-up than placebo-treated subjects. Notably, groups did not differ in phobia-unrelated state-anxiety before and after the exposure sessions and at follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that adding cortisol to in vivo exposure-based group therapy of spider phobia enhances treatment outcome.

The new Southeast Asian goblin spider genus Aposphragisma (Araneae, Oonopidae): diversity and phylogeny

The new genus Aposphragisma (Araneae, Oonopidae, Oonopinae) comprising the new species A. baltenspergerae, A. borgulai, A. brunomanseri, A. confluens, A. dayak, A. dentatum, A. draconigenum, A. hausammannae, A. helvetiorum, A. kolleri, A. menzi, A. monoceros, A. nocturnum, A. retifer, A. rimba, A. salewskii, A. scimitar, A. sepilok and A. stannum is described. It is characterised by very hard bodied, strongly sclerotized species with completely armoured prosoma and strongly sclerotized ventral and dorsal abdominal scuta. Aposphragisma gen. nov. is placed within the Gamasomorpha-group sensu Saaristo (2001). Descriptions and illustrations are given for all new species. A phylogenetic analysis based on 40 characters using Prethopalpus fosuma, Gamasomorpha asterobothros, G. cataphracta, G. seximpressa, Xestaspis biflocci, X. kandy and X. paulina as outgroup-taxa and Cortestina thaleri (Oonopidae, Sulsulinae) as the root is presented and discussed. Furthermore it is shown that females of Aposphragisma gen. nov. possess complex internal genitalia. The members of the new genus are ground-dwelling litter inhabitants restricted to Southeast Asian lowland and montane forests, with more than 60% of the species only known from single localities. They are presumed to be negatively affected by the massive destruction of pristine forest habitats within their range. This work has been conducted within the framework of the Planetary Biodiversity Inventory (PBI) of Oonopidae (see http://research.amnh.org/oonopidae).

Functional differentiation of spider hemocytes by light and transmission electron microscopy, and MALDI-MS-imaging

The most abundant cell types in the hemolymph of Cupiennius salei are plasmatocytes (70–80%) and granulocytes (20–30%). Both cells differ in shape, cytochemical and transmission electron microscopy staining of their cytoplasma and granules. According to MALDI-IMS (matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry imaging), granulocytes exhibit ctenidin 1 (9510 Da) and ctenidin 3 (9568 Da), SIBD-1 (8675 Da), and unknown peptides with masses of 2207 and 6239 Da. Plasmatocytes exhibit mainly a mass of 6908 Da. Unknown peptides with masses of 1546 and 1960 Da were detected in plasmatocytes and granulocytes. Transmission electron microscopy confirms the presence of two compounds in one granule and cytochemical staining (light microscopy) tends to support this view. Two further hemocyte types (cyanocytes containing hemocyanin and prehemocytes as stem cells) are only rarely detected in the hemolymph. These four hemocyte types constitute the cellular part of the spider immune system and this is discussed in view of arachnid hemocyte evolution.

Genetic identification of an oxyurid from a captive, black-handed spider monkey—implications for treatment and control

Parasites are of major clinical significance in captive primates in zoos, particularly those with direct life cycles. Oxyurid nematodes can be a persistent problem, as infection intensity and environmental contamination with infective eggs are usually high. Observations at the Basel Zoo in Switzerland have revealed that particularly black-handed spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) exhibit continuous oxyurid nematode infection(s), despite regular deworming with anthelmintics. In the present study, using a molecular approach, we were able to identify the nematode (Trypanoxyuris atelis) causing this ongoing problem, and we are now evaluating a practical treatment and control regimen to tackle this parasite problem.

The broad-leaf herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid turns rice into a living trap for a major insect pest and a parasitic wasp

Synthetic chemical elicitors of plant defense have been touted as a powerful means for sustainable crop protection. Yet, they have never been successfully applied to control insect pests in the field. We developed a high-throughput chemical genetics screening system based on a herbivore-induced linalool synthase promoter fused to a β-glucuronidase (GUS) reporter construct to test synthetic compounds for their potential to induce rice defenses. We identified 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), an auxin homolog and widely used herbicide in monocotyledonous crops, as a potent elicitor of rice defenses. Low doses of 2,4-D induced a strong defensive reaction upstream of the jasmonic acid and ethylene pathways, resulting in a marked increase in trypsin proteinase inhibitor activity and volatile production. Induced plants were more resistant to the striped stem borer Chilo suppressalis, but became highly attractive to the brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens and its main egg parasitoid Anagrus nilaparvatae. In a field experiment, 2,4-D application turned rice plants into living traps for N. lugens by attracting parasitoids. • Our findings demonstrate the potential of auxin homologs as defensive signals and show the potential of the herbicide to turn rice into a selective catch crop for an economically important pest.

Brain systems underlying encounter expectancy bias in spider phobia.

Spider-phobic individuals are characterized by exaggerated expectancies to be faced with spiders (so-called encounter expectancy bias). Whereas phobic responses have been linked to brain systems mediating fear, little is known about how the recruitment of these systems relates to exaggerated expectancies of threat. We used fMRI to examine spider-phobic and control participants while they imagined visiting different locations in a forest after having received background information about the likelihood of encountering different animals (spiders, snakes, and birds) at these locations. Critically, imagined encounter expectancies modulated brain responses differently in phobics as compared with controls. Phobics displayed stronger negative modulation of activity in the lateral prefrontal cortex, precuneus, and visual cortex by encounter expectancies for spiders, relative to snakes or birds (within-participants analysis); these effects were not seen in controls. Between-participants correlation analyses within the phobic group further corroborated the hypothesis that these phobia-specific modulations may underlie irrationality in encounter expectancies (deviations of encounter expectancies from objective background information) in spider phobia; the greater the negative modulation a phobic participant displayed in the lateral prefrontal cortex, precuneus, and visual cortex, the stronger was her bias in encounter expectancies for spiders. Interestingly, irrationality in expectancies reflected in frontal areas relied on right rather than left hemispheric deactivations. Our data accord with the idea that expectancy biases in spider phobia may reflect deficiencies in cognitive control and contextual integration that are mediated by right frontal and parietal areas.

Polydnavirus DNA of the braconid wasp Chelonus inanitus is integrated in the wasp's genome and excised only in later pupal and adult stages of the female

Many endoparasitic wasps inject, along with the egg, polydnavirus into their insect hosts, the virus being a prerequisite for successful parasitoid development. The genome of polydnaviruses consists of multiple circular dsDNA molecules of variable size. We show for a 12 kbp segment of the braconid Chelonus inanitus (CiV12) that it is integrated into the wasp genome. This is the first direct demonstration of integration for a bracovirus. PCR data indicated that the integrated form of CiV12 was present in all male and female stages investigated while the excised circular virus DNA only appeared in females after a specific stage in pupal-adult development. The data also indicated that after excision of virus DNA the genomic DNA was rejoined. This has not yet been reported for any polydnavirus. Sequence analyses in the junction regions revealed the presence of an imperfect consensus sequence of 15 nucleotides in CiV12, in each terminus of the integrated virus DNA and in the rejoined genomic DNA. Within these repeats two sequence types (ATA, TAC) were observed in the various virus clones and in the clones encompassing the rejoined genomic DNA; they corresponded to the sequence type in the right and left junction, respectively. To explain this, we propose a model of virus DNA replication in which the genomic DNA is folded to juxtapose the direct repeat of the left with that of the right junction; recombination at specific sites would then yield the two types of virus and rejoined genomic DNA.

Polydnavirus of the parasitic wasp Chelonus inanitus (Braconidae): characterization, genome organization and time point of replication

Ultrastructural analysis of the polydnavirus of the braconid wasp Chelonus inanitus revealed that virions consist of one cylindrical nucleocapsid enveloped by a single unit membrane. Nucleocapsids have a constant diameter of 33.7 +/- 1.4 nm and a variable length of between 8 and 46 nm. Spreading of viral DNA showed that the genome consists of circular dsDNA molecules of variable sizes and measurement of the contour lengths indicated sizes of between 7 and 31 kbp. When virions were exposed to osmotic shock conditions to release the DNA, only one circular molecule was released per particle suggesting that the various DNA molecules are singly encapsidated in this bracovirus. The viral genome was seen to consist of at least 10 different segments and the aggregate genome size is in the order of 200 kbp. By partial digestion of viral DNA with HindIII or EcoRI in the presence of ethidium bromide and subsequent ligation with HindIII-cut pSP65 or EcoRI-cut pSP64 and transfection into Escherichia coli, libraries of 103 HindIII and 23 EcoRI clones were obtained. Southern blots revealed that complete and unrearranged segments were cloned with this approach, and restriction maps for five segments were obtained. Part of a 16.8 kbp segment was sequenced, found to be AT-rich (73%) and to contain six copies of a 17 bp repeated sequence. The development of the female reproductive tract in the course of pupal-adult development of the wasp was investigated and seen to be strictly correlated with the pigmentation pattern. By the use of a semiquantitative PCR, replication of viral DNA was observed to initiate at a specific stage of pupal-adult development.

Isolation, N-glycosylations and Function of a Hyaluronidase-Like Enzyme from the Venom of the Spider Cupiennius salei.

STRUCTURE OF CUPIENNIUS SALEI VENOM HYALURONIDASE Hyaluronidases are important venom components acting as spreading factor of toxic compounds. In several studies this spreading effect was tested on vertebrate tissue. However, data about the spreading activity on invertebrates, the main prey organisms of spiders, are lacking. Here, a hyaluronidase-like enzyme was isolated from the venom of the spider Cupiennius salei. The amino acid sequence of the enzyme was determined by cDNA analysis of the venom gland transcriptome and confirmed by protein analysis. Two complex N-linked glycans akin to honey bee hyaluronidase glycosylations, were identified by tandem mass spectrometry. A C-terminal EGF-like domain was identified in spider hyaluronidase using InterPro. The spider hyaluronidase-like enzyme showed maximal activity at acidic pH, between 40-60°C, and 0.2 M KCl. Divalent ions did not enhance HA degradation activity, indicating that they are not recruited for catalysis. FUNCTION OF VENOM HYALURONIDASES Besides hyaluronan, the enzyme degrades chondroitin sulfate A, whereas heparan sulfate and dermatan sulfate are not affected. The end products of hyaluronan degradation are tetramers, whereas chondroitin sulfate A is mainly degraded to hexamers. Identification of terminal N-acetylglucosamine or N-acetylgalactosamine at the reducing end of the oligomers identified the enzyme as an endo-β-N-acetyl-D-hexosaminidase hydrolase. The spreading effect of the hyaluronidase-like enzyme on invertebrate tissue was studied by coinjection of the enzyme with the Cupiennius salei main neurotoxin CsTx-1 into Drosophila flies. The enzyme significantly enhances the neurotoxic activity of CsTx-1. Comparative substrate degradation tests with hyaluronan, chondroitin sulfate A, dermatan sulfate, and heparan sulfate with venoms from 39 spider species from 21 families identified some spider families (Atypidae, Eresidae, Araneidae and Nephilidae) without activity of hyaluronidase-like enzymes. This is interpreted as a loss of this enzyme and fits quite well the current phylogenetic idea on a more isolated position of these families and can perhaps be explained by specialized prey catching techniques.

Defensin Levels in Spider Hemolymph

Spiders, like all arthropods, exclusively rely on an innate immune system localized in the hemocytes to protect against pathogen invasion. In the hemocytes of the wandering spider Cupiennius salei (C. salei), defensin expression was found to be constitutive. Defensins belong to the group of antimicrobial peptides, which appear in most taxonomic groups, and play an essential role in innate immunity. It has further been reported that during the primary immune answer of C. salei, the peptide content of hemocytes changes markedly, which may indicate the release of defensins from the hemocytes. However, no data on the peptide levels in C. salei hemolymph has so far been published. Formerly, the involvement in the primary immune answer was considered the only function of defensins. However, recent findings strongly suggest that the importance of defensins goes far beyond. There is evidence for defensins contributing to the adaptive immune response, to angiogenesis, and furthermore to tissue repair, i.e. to a variety of essential processes in living organisms. To date, only very little is known about the identity of C. salei defensins and their detailed mode of action. The goal of the work presented herein is the identification of hitherto unknown C. salei defensins in hemocytes and the hemolymph. Moreover, the levels of defensin expression under differential conditions are compared by the means of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS).

If hunters end up in the emergency room: a retrospective analysis of hunting injuries in a swiss emergency department.

Aim. to characterize the mechanisms, patterns, and outcomes of nonfatal hunting-related injuries in patients presenting to Bern University Hospital, Switzerland, and compare these to reports of hunting injuries worldwide. Methods. patients presenting with hunting-related injuries to the Emergency Department at Bern University hospital from 2000 to 2014 were identified by retrospectively searching the department database using the keyword "hunt." Each case was analyzed in terms of the patient age and gender, the mechanism and pattern of injury, and management and patient follow-up. Results. 19 patients were identified. 16 were male with a mean age of 50 years (range: 16-74). Mechanisms of injury included firearm-related injuries, falls, and knife wounds. The most common patterns of injury were head injuries (7), followed by injuries to the upper (5) or lower limb (5) and trunk (2). Over half of the patients were admitted, and nine required emergency surgery. Conclusion. Nonfatal hunting accidents in Bern, Switzerland, are largely caused by firearms and falls and tend to occur in male hunters with a mean age of 50 years. The most common patterns of injury are orthopedic and head injuries, often requiring surgery. These findings are consistent with international studies of nonfatal hunting accidents.

Ahead of the Game: Middle and Upper Palaeolithic Hunting Behaviors in the Southern Caucasus

Over the past several decades a variety of models have been proposed to explain perceived behavioral and cognitive differences between Neanderthals and modern humans. A key element in many of these models and one often used as a proxy for behavioral “modernity” is the frequency and nature of hunting among Palaeolithic populations. Here new archaeological data from Ortvale Klde, a late Middle–early Upper Palaeolithic rockshelter in the Georgian Republic, are considered, and zooarchaeological methods are applied to the study of faunal acquisition patterns to test whether they changed significantly from the Middle to the Upper Palaeolithic. The analyses demonstrate that Neanderthals and modern humans practiced largely identical hunting tactics and that the two populations were equally and independently capable of acquiring and exploiting critical biogeographical information pertaining to resource availability and animal behavior. Like lithic techno-typological traditions, hunting behaviors are poor proxies for major behavioral differences between Neanderthals and modern humans, a conclusion that has important implications for debates surrounding the Middle–Upper Palaeolithic transition and what features constitute “modern” behavior. The proposition is advanced that developments in the social realm of Upper Palaeolithic societies allowed the replacement of Neanderthals in the Caucasus with little temporal or spatial overlap and that this process was widespread beyond traditional topographic and biogeographical barriers to Neanderthal mobility.

Hunting Down Dead People: Genealogy Resources in the Iowa State University Library

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