Contribution to assessing the stiffness reduction of structural elements in the global stability analysis of precast concrete multi-storey buildings

This study deals with the reduction of the stiffness in precast concrete structural elements of multi-storey buildings to analyze global stability. Having reviewed the technical literature, this paper present indications of stiffness reduction in different codes, standards, and recommendations and compare these to the values found in the present study. The structural model analyzed in this study was constructed with finite elements using ANSYS® software. Physical Non-Linearity (PNL) was considered in relation to the diagrams M x N x 1/r, and Geometric Non-Linearity (GNL) was calculated following the Newton-Raphson method. Using a typical precast concrete structure with multiple floors and a semi-rigid beam-to-column connection, expressions for a stiffness reduction coefficient are presented. The main conclusions of the study are as follows: the reduction coefficients obtained from the diagram M x N x 1/r differ from standards that use a simplified consideration of PNL; the stiffness reduction coefficient for columns in the arrangements analyzed were approximately 0.5 to 0.6; and the variation of values found for stiffness reduction coefficient in concrete beams, which were subjected to the effects of creep with linear coefficients from 0 to 3, ranged from 0.45 to 0.2 for positive bending moments and 0.3 to 0.2 for negative bending moments.

Shear force and torsion in reinforced concrete beam elements: theoretical analysis based on Brazilian Standard Code ABNT NBR 6118:2007

Reinforced concrete beam elements are submitted to applicable loads along their life cycle that cause shear and torsion. These elements may be subject to only shear, pure torsion or both, torsion and shear combined. The Brazilian Standard Code ABNT NBR 6118:2007 [1] fixes conditions to calculate the transverse reinforcement area in beam reinforced concrete elements, using two design models, based on the strut and tie analogy model, first studied by Mörsch [2]. The strut angle θ (theta) can be considered constant and equal to 45º (Model I), or varying between 30º and 45º (Model II). In the case of transversal ties (stirrups), the variation of angle α (alpha) is between 45º and 90º. When the equilibrium torsion is required, a resistant model based on space truss with hollow section is considered. The space truss admits an inclination angle θ between 30º and 45º, in accordance with beam elements subjected to shear. This paper presents a theoretical study of models I and II for combined shear and torsion, in which ranges the geometry and intensity of action in reinforced concrete beams, aimed to verify the consumption of transverse reinforcement in accordance with the calculation model adopted As the strut angle on model II ranges from 30º to 45º, transverse reinforcement area (Asw) decreases, and total reinforcement area, which includes longitudinal torsion reinforcement (Asℓ), increases. It appears that, when considering model II with strut angle above 40º, under shear only, transverse reinforcement area increases 22% compared to values obtained using model I.

Shear strength of reinforced concrete circular cross-section beams

A proposed adequation of NBR 6118, Item 7.4, related to shear strength of reinforced concrete beams is presented with aims to application on circular cross-section. The actual expressions are most suitable to rectangular cross-section and some misleading occurs when applied to circular sections at determination of VRd2, Vc and Vsw, as consequence of bw (beam width) and d (effective depth) definitions as well as the real effectiveness of circular stirrups. The proposed adequation is based on extensive bibliographic review and practical experience with a great number of infrastructure elements, such as anchored retaining pile walls, where the use of circular reinforced concrete members is frequent.

The role of wake stiffness on the wake-induced vibration of the downstream cylinder of a tandem pair

When a pair of tandem cylinders is immersed in a flow the downstream cylinder can be excited into wake-induced vibrations (WIV) due to the interaction with vortices coming from the upstream cylinder. Assi, Bearman & Meneghini ( J. Fluid Mech. , vol. 661, 2010, pp. 365–401) concluded that the WIV excitation mechanism has its origin in the unsteady vortex–structure interaction encountered by the cylinder as it oscillates across the wake. In the present paper we investigate how the cylinder responds to that excitation, characterising the amplitude and frequency of response and its dependency on other parameters of the system. We introduce the concept of wake stiffness , a fluid dynamic effect that can be associated, to a first approximation, with a linear spring with stiffness proportional to Re and to the steady lift force occurring for staggered cylinders. By a series of experiments with a cylinder mounted on a base without springs we verify that such wake stiffness is not only strong enough to sustain oscillatory motion, but can also dominate over the structural stiffness of the system. We conclude that while unsteady vortex–structure interactions provide the energy input to sustain the vibrations, it is the wake stiffness phenomenon that defines the character of the WIV response

Upper crustal earthquake swarms in São Caetano: reactivation of the Pernambuco shear zone and trending branches in intraplate Brazil

Seismogenic fault reactivation of continental-scale structures has been observed in a few intraplate areas, but its cause is still amatter of debate. The objective of the present study is to analyze two seismic swarms that occurred along the EW-trending Pernambuco ductile shear zone and in a NE-trending branch, in 2007 and 2010 in São Caetano County, Northeastern Brazil.We studied both epicentral areas using a nine- and a seven-station network during 180 and 54 days, respectively. The results indicate that the 2007 swarm correspond to a right-lateral, strike–slip fault with a normal component of slip (strike 74°, dip 60°, and rake−145°) and the 2010 swarmcorresponds to a normal fault (strike 265°, dip 79°, and rake −91°). The former reactivated a NE-trending branch, whereas the latter reactivated the main E-W-trending mylonitic belt of the Pernambuco shear zone. These results are consistent with seismogenic reactivation of this major structure, generated by the present-day EW-trending compression and NS-trending extension, as observed by previous studies. This shear zone was reactivated as rift faults in the Cretaceous during the South America–Africa breakup. However, our study confirms that the basement fabric such as continental-scale ductile shear zones, show evidence of crustal weakness outside areas of previous rifting, and it reveals the potential for large earthquakes along dormant rift segments associated with major basement shear belts.

Ocean Ultrasonic Shear and Compression Viscosities

[EN]A comprehensive description of ocean molecular flow and deformation is provided with the help of hydrodynamic and ultrasonic principles. Hydrodynamic computation of true or natural viscosities shows that ocean shear viscosity (?G), compression viscosity (?K), and extensional viscosity (?E) are interrelated. There are no experimental methods available for the in situ measurement of these viscosities. Sound absorption coefficients (? obs) allow to know the ultrasonic shear (?UG), compression (?UK), and longitudinal (?L) viscosities, which decrease with increasing frequency and increase with increasing temperature, the flow activation energies having nearly equivalent values; pressure (depth) increase/decrease them at low/high frequencies. The viscosities ?* UG, ?* UK, ?* L are approached at about 1000 KHz. They decrease with temperature and pressure, and increase with salinity. The ?*UG becomes equal to the true shear viscosity ? G at the viscosity ratio ? = ?UK / ?UG = 0.

Short-term variability of picoplankton across wind-shear region south of Gran Canaria

Máster en Oceanografía

Short-term variability of picoplankton across the wind-shear region south of Gran Canaria

[EN]We have studied the short-term variability -at temporal scale of days and spatial scale of 5 km- of the hydrographic field, organic and inorganic nutrients, chlorophyll and picoplanktonic abundances, across a 40 Km section crossing a frontal system south of Gran Canaria, where anticyclonic eddies in early-stages of formation and convergent fronts have been widely reported in the past. Each cruise consisted in a 3-4 daily-repeated section, and was carried out at the same period of the year (May) during two consecutive years (2011 and 2012). The main goal of our study was to analyze the picoplankton response to short-term variability at scales not considered in regular oceanographic samplings, even in regions with complex hydrographic fields.

Procedimenti di ottimizzazione di sistemi smorzati

La presente tesi riguarda lo studio di procedimenti di ottimizzazione di sistemi smorzati. In particolare, i sistemi studiati sono strutture shear-type soggette ad azioni di tipo sismico impresse alla base. Per effettuare l’ottimizzazione dei sistemi in oggetto si agisce sulle rigidezze di piano e sui coefficienti di smorzamento effettuando una ridistribuzione delle quantità suddette nei piani della struttura. È interessante effettuare l’ottimizzazione di sistemi smorzati nell’ottica della progettazione antisismica, in modo da ridurre la deformata della struttura e, conseguentemente, anche le sollecitazioni che agiscono su di essa. Il lavoro consta di sei capitoli nei quali vengono affrontate tre procedure numerico-analitiche per effettuare l’ottimizzazione di sistemi shear-type. Nel primo capitolo si studia l’ottimizzazione di sistemi shear-type agendo su funzioni di trasferimento opportunamente vincolate. In particolare, le variabili di progetto sono le rigidezze di piano, mentre i coefficienti di smorzamento e le masse di piano risultano quantità note e costanti durante tutto il procedimento di calcolo iterativo; per effettuare il controllo dinamico della struttura si cerca di ottenere una deformata pressoché rettilinea. Tale condizione viene raggiunta ponendo le ampiezze delle funzioni di trasferimento degli spostamenti di interpiano pari all’ampiezza della funzione di trasferimento del primo piano. Al termine della procedura si ottiene una ridistribuzione della rigidezza complessiva nei vari piani della struttura. In particolare, si evince un aumento della rigidezza nei piani più bassi che risultano essere quelli più sollecitati da una azione impressa alla base e, conseguentemente, si assiste ad una progressiva riduzione della variabile di progetto nei piani più alti. L’applicazione numerica di tale procedura viene effettuata nel secondo capitolo mediante l’ausilio di un programma di calcolo in linguaggio Matlab. In particolare, si effettua lo studio di sistemi a tre e a cinque gradi di libertà. La seconda procedura numerico-analitica viene presentata nel terzo capitolo. Essa riguarda l’ottimizzazione di sistemi smorzati agendo simultaneamente sulla rigidezza e sullo smorzamento e consta di due fasi. La prima fase ricerca il progetto ottimale della struttura per uno specifico valore della rigidezza complessiva e dello smorzamento totale, mentre la seconda fase esamina una serie di progetti ottimali in funzione di diversi valori della rigidezza e dello smorzamento totale. Nella prima fase, per ottenere il controllo dinamico della struttura, viene minimizzata la somma degli scarti quadratici medi degli spostamenti di interpiano. Le variabili di progetto, aggiornate dopo ogni iterazione, sono le rigidezze di piano ed i coefficienti di smorzamento. Si pone, inoltre, un vincolo sulla quantità totale di rigidezza e di smorzamento, e i valori delle rigidezze e dei coefficienti di smorzamento di ogni piano non devono superare un limite superiore posto all’inizio della procedura. Anche in questo caso viene effettuata una ridistribuzione delle rigidezze e dei coefficienti di smorzamento nei vari piani della struttura fino ad ottenere la minimizzazione della funzione obiettivo. La prima fase riduce la deformata della struttura minimizzando la somma degli scarti quadrarici medi degli spostamenti di interpiano, ma comporta un aumento dello scarto quadratico medio dell’accelerazione assoluta dell’ultimo piano. Per mantenere quest’ultima quantità entro limiti accettabili, si passa alla seconda fase in cui si effettua una riduzione dell’accelerazione attraverso l’aumento della quantità totale di smorzamento. La procedura di ottimizzazione di sistemi smorzati agendo simultaneamente sulla rigidezza e sullo smorzamento viene applicata numericamente, mediante l’utilizzo di un programma di calcolo in linguaggio Matlab, nel capitolo quattro. La procedura viene applicata a sistemi a due e a cinque gradi di libertà. L’ultima parte della tesi ha come oggetto la generalizzazione della procedura che viene applicata per un sistema dotato di isolatori alla base. Tale parte della tesi è riportata nel quinto capitolo. Per isolamento sismico di un edificio (sistema di controllo passivo) si intende l’inserimento tra la struttura e le sue fondazioni di opportuni dispositivi molto flessibili orizzontalmente, anche se rigidi in direzione verticale. Tali dispositivi consentono di ridurre la trasmissione del moto del suolo alla struttura in elevazione disaccoppiando il moto della sovrastruttura da quello del terreno. L’inserimento degli isolatori consente di ottenere un aumento del periodo proprio di vibrare della struttura per allontanarlo dalla zona dello spettro di risposta con maggiori accelerazioni. La principale peculiarità dell’isolamento alla base è la possibilità di eliminare completamente, o quantomeno ridurre sensibilmente, i danni a tutte le parti strutturali e non strutturali degli edifici. Quest’ultimo aspetto è importantissimo per gli edifici che devono rimanere operativi dopo un violento terremoto, quali ospedali e i centri operativi per la gestione delle emergenze. Nelle strutture isolate si osserva una sostanziale riduzione degli spostamenti di interpiano e delle accelerazioni relative. La procedura di ottimizzazione viene modificata considerando l’introduzione di isolatori alla base di tipo LRB. Essi sono costituiti da strati in elastomero (aventi la funzione di dissipare, disaccoppiare il moto e mantenere spostamenti accettabili) alternati a lamine in acciaio (aventi la funzione di mantenere una buona resistenza allo schiacciamento) che ne rendono trascurabile la deformabilità in direzione verticale. Gli strati in elastomero manifestano una bassa rigidezza nei confronti degli spostamenti orizzontali. La procedura di ottimizzazione viene applicata ad un telaio shear-type ad N gradi di libertà con smorzatori viscosi aggiunti. Con l’introduzione dell’isolatore alla base si passa da un sistema ad N gradi di libertà ad un sistema a N+1 gradi di libertà, in quanto l’isolatore viene modellato alla stregua di un piano della struttura considerando una rigidezza e uno smorzamento equivalente dell’isolatore. Nel caso di sistema sheat-type isolato alla base, poiché l’isolatore agisce sia sugli spostamenti di interpiano, sia sulle accelerazioni trasmesse alla struttura, si considera una nuova funzione obiettivo che minimizza la somma incrementata degli scarti quadratici medi degli spostamenti di interpiano e delle accelerazioni. Le quantità di progetto sono i coefficienti di smorzamento e le rigidezze di piano della sovrastruttura. Al termine della procedura si otterrà una nuova ridistribuzione delle variabili di progetto nei piani della struttura. In tal caso, però, la sovrastruttura risulterà molto meno sollecitata in quanto tutte le deformazioni vengono assorbite dal sistema di isolamento. Infine, viene effettuato un controllo sull’entità dello spostamento alla base dell’isolatore perché potrebbe raggiungere valori troppo elevati. Infatti, la normativa indica come valore limite dello spostamento alla base 25cm; valori più elevati dello spostamento creano dei problemi soprattutto per la realizzazione di adeguati giunti sismici. La procedura di ottimizzazione di sistemi isolati alla base viene applicata numericamente mediante l’utilizzo di un programma di calcolo in linguaggio Matlab nel sesto capitolo. La procedura viene applicata a sistemi a tre e a cinque gradi di libertà. Inoltre si effettua il controllo degli spostamenti alla base sollecitando la struttura con il sisma di El Centro e il sisma di Northridge. I risultati hanno mostrato che la procedura di calcolo è efficace e inoltre gli spostamenti alla base sono contenuti entro il limite posto dalla normativa. Giova rilevare che il sistema di isolamento riduce sensibilmente le grandezze che interessano la sovrastruttura, la quale si comporta come un corpo rigido al di sopra dell’isolatore. In futuro si potrà studiare il comportamento di strutture isolate considerando diverse tipologie di isolatori alla base e non solo dispositivi elastomerici. Si potrà, inoltre, modellare l’isolatore alla base con un modello isteretico bilineare ed effettuare un confronto con i risultati già ottenuti per il modello lineare.

Importance of footing-soil separation on dynamic stiffness of piled embedded footings

[EN]Different phenomena such a soil consolidation, erosion, and scour beneath an embedded footing supported on piles may lead to loss of contact between soil and the pile cap underside. The importance of this separation on the dynamic stiffness and damping of the foundation is assessed in this work.

Dynamic stiffness of deep foundations with inclined piles.

[EN]The influence of inclined piles on the dynamic response of deep foundations and superstructures is still not well understood and needs further research. For this reason, impedance functions of deep foundations with inclined piles, obtained numerically from a boundary element-finete element coupling model, are provided in this paper.

Structure-soil-structure interaction effects on the dynamic response of piled structures under obliquely-incident seismic shear waves.

[EN] This work studies the structure-soil-structure interaction (SSSI) effects on the dynamic response of nearby piled structures under obliquely-incident shear waves. For this purpose, a three-dimensional, frequency-domain, coupled boundary element-finite (BEM-FEM) model is used to analyse the response of configuration of three buildings aligned parallel to the horizontal component of the wave propagation direction.

Active fibre-reinforced composites with embedded shape memory alloys

This dissertation concerns active fibre-reinforced composites with embedded shape memory alloy wires. The structural application of active materials allows to develop adaptive structures which actively respond to changes in the environment, such as morphing structures, self-healing structures and power harvesting devices. In particular, shape memory alloy actuators integrated within a composite actively control the structural shape or stiffness, thus influencing the composite static and dynamic properties. Envisaged applications include, among others, the prevention of thermal buckling of the outer skin of air vehicles, shape changes in panels for improved aerodynamic characteristics and the deployment of large space structures. The study and design of active composites is a complex and multidisciplinary topic, requiring in-depth understanding of both the coupled behaviour of active materials and the interaction between the different composite constituents. Both fibre-reinforced composites and shape memory alloys are extremely active research topics, whose modelling and experimental characterisation still present a number of open problems. Thus, while this dissertation focuses on active composites, some of the research results presented here can be usefully applied to traditional fibre-reinforced composites or other shape memory alloy applications. The dissertation is composed of four chapters. In the first chapter, active fibre-reinforced composites are introduced by giving an overview of the most common choices available for the reinforcement, matrix and production process, together with a brief introduction and classification of active materials. The second chapter presents a number of original contributions regarding the modelling of fibre-reinforced composites. Different two-dimensional laminate theories are derived from a parent three-dimensional theory, introducing a procedure for the a posteriori reconstruction of transverse stresses along the laminate thickness. Accurate through the thickness stresses are crucial for the composite modelling as they are responsible for some common failure mechanisms. A new finite element based on the First-order Shear Deformation Theory and a hybrid stress approach is proposed for the numerical solution of the two-dimensional laminate problem. The element is simple and computationally efficient. The transverse stresses through the laminate thickness are reconstructed starting from a general finite element solution. A two stages procedure is devised, based on Recovery by Compatibility in Patches and three-dimensional equilibrium. Finally, the determination of the elastic parameters of laminated structures via numerical-experimental Bayesian techniques is investigated. Two different estimators are analysed and compared, leading to the definition of an alternative procedure to improve convergence of the estimation process. The third chapter focuses on shape memory alloys, describing their properties and applications. A number of constitutive models proposed in the literature, both one-dimensional and three-dimensional, are critically discussed and compared, underlining their potential and limitations, which are mainly related to the definition of the phase diagram and the choice of internal variables. Some new experimental results on shape memory alloy material characterisation are also presented. These experimental observations display some features of the shape memory alloy behaviour which are generally not included in the current models, thus some ideas are proposed for the development of a new constitutive model. The fourth chapter, finally, focuses on active composite plates with embedded shape memory alloy wires. A number of di®erent approaches can be used to predict the behaviour of such structures, each model presenting different advantages and drawbacks related to complexity and versatility. A simple model able to describe both shape and stiffness control configurations within the same context is proposed and implemented. The model is then validated considering the shape control configuration, which is the most sensitive to model parameters. The experimental work is divided in two parts. In the first part, an active composite is built by gluing prestrained shape memory alloy wires on a carbon fibre laminate strip. This structure is relatively simple to build, however it is useful in order to experimentally demonstrate the feasibility of the concept proposed in the first part of the chapter. In the second part, the making of a fibre-reinforced composite with embedded shape memory alloy wires is investigated, considering different possible choices of materials and manufacturing processes. Although a number of technological issues still need to be faced, the experimental results allow to demonstrate the mechanism of shape control via embedded shape memory alloy wires, while showing a good agreement with the proposed model predictions.