The gender wage gap in the public and private sectors in Bangladesh

The gender wage gap is well studied in developed countries; however, recently it has generated much interest in developing countries. This thesis addresses three issues regarding the gender wage gap in Bangladesh. Firstly, it explores the wage determinants for formal public and private sector employees in Bangladesh and examines the gender pay gap. This is the first time different decomposition methods have been used to compare the sources of the gender wage gap as well as any potential discrimination effect in the formal sector of the Bangladeshi labour market. These decomposition methods are: the original Oaxaca (1973) and Blinder (1973) decomposition methods, the Neumark (1988), Cotton (1988), and Reimers (1983) methods, and the extended Oaxaca method including both the employment selection and the double selection correction in the wage equation. In addition to mentioned methods, to quantify the gender wage gap in monetary terms, a recently developed ‘simulated change’ approach by Olsen and Walby (2004) is also applied for the first time to the Bangladeshi data. By using the Labour Force Survey 2005-06, BBS (LFS 2005-06) data results show formal sector female employees earn about 32.1 per cent less than their male counterparts. Without considering the selection correction, a large range of human capital, demographic and labour market related variables are explained less than half of the total gender wage gap (21 to 46 per cent of the total wage gap) and the major part of the wage gap is unexplained (54 to 79 per cent of the total wage gap). This could partly be attributed to discrimination. Using the double selection correction method, the decomposition results changed where a small part of the wage gap was explained by the measured characteristics (only nine per cent of the total wage gap) and a major part is attributed to the discrimination and selection effect. The selection effect also reveals that exclusion of the double selection correction might lead to an overestimation of the gender wage gap in the formal sector of Bangladesh. In addition, results based on the Olsen and Walby (2004) simulation method show that, if the other characteristics of male and female employees were similar, ‘being female’ is sufficient, to generate significantly lower wages than males in the formal sector. If females in the workplace are treated as males, without considering any other endowment increases, females could increase their earnings by 4095.3 Taka1 per year. Results also indicate that not only endowment differences in human capital and work experience related variables were important, but discrimination appears to play a significant role in the total wage gap throughout the formal sector of the Bangladeshi labour market. Secondly, the study investigates whether public sector employees enjoyed a wage premium or not, compared to the private sector and whether the gender wage gap is greater in the public sector. In addition, the research considered whether there was an impact from the inclusion of the different selection correction terms in the wage equation. In Bangladesh, public sector employees have, on average, a 60 per cent wage premium over the private sector. Using both the original Oaxaca and the extended Oaxaca methods, where selection effect is partly captured by both explained and unexplained components, and using the public sector wage structure as the basis of the non-discriminatory wage structure, these methods revealed a considerably larger portion of explained (72 - 93 per cent of the total wage gap) and a smaller portion of unexplained part of the wage gap. However, if the selection correction is considered as another component of the decomposition outcome then the major portion of the total public and private sectors wage gap is justified (explained) by the effect of the selection correction and unexplained factors. Furthermore, a large part of the wage premium exists in favour of public sector female employees compared to males and the gender wage gap is lower in the public sector than the private sector. Finally, this study compares the gender wage gap of five different occupations. The gender wage gap is associated with labour market rigidities where one of the important factors is occupational segregation where females are disproportionately distributed in occupations resulting in lower earnings. The largest gender wage gap was found in agriculture, forestry, fisheries, production and transport labour jobs (56.4 per cent) and the lowest in the professional, technical administrative and managerial jobs (22.1 per cent). Substantial differences are found in the size of the endowment gap across occupations and larger variations occurred in the adjusted wage gap which varied from 21.4 per cent in sales and service occupations, to 100 per cent in professional and technical jobs (the highest). This too can be partly explained by discrimination. A reduction in the gender wage gap is expected not only to increase national income, but also to reduce poverty and lead to better outcomes for future generations. National policy should aim to reduce the gender wage gap and achieve gender wage equality in the formal sector; for example through a targeted program to remove the gender differences in education and to reduce the skill difference, with a better child care policy to encourage labour force retention and increased labour market experience for female employees, with anti-discriminatory policies and the enforcement of existing antidiscrimination policies, and a more equal distribution of males and females across occupations.

O papel da auditoria interna nas insituições públicas de ensino superior em Portugal continental - universidade e politécnicos

Mestrado em Auditoria

Câmara Municipal de Loures: uma experiência em arquitetura paisagista no sector público

O presente relatório de estágio reflete o trabalho realizado e a experiência adquirida ao longo de seis meses na Câmara Municipal de Loures. Os trabalhos desenvolvidos correspondem, sobretudo, ao que era pretendido por parte da Câmara Municipal tendo sido aplicados, em parte, os conhecimentos adquiridos ao longo da licenciatura e do mestrado em Arquitetura Paisagista na Universidade de Évora. Este relatório incide sobre a regulamentação do mobiliário urbano em todo o Município de Loures, na caracterização e proposta de intervenção para alguns espaços abertos pertencentes ao concelho e na importância da Arquitetura Paisagista no sector público; ABSTRACT: City Council of Loures: An Experience in Landscape Architecture in the Public Sector This internship report reflects the work done and experience gained over six months at the City Council of Loures. The work developed are primarily to what was intended by the City Council having been applied in part the knowledge acquired throughout the undergraduate and master's degree in Landscape Architecture at the University of Évora. This report focuses on the regulation of street furniture throughout the Loures Municipality, characterization and proposal of intervention for some open spaces belonging to the municipality and the importance of Landscape Architecture in the public sector.

Universities and Welfare States Coping with Permanent Financial Austerity: Pressures on (Competing) Public Institutions

A chapter linking universities and welfare states to permanent financial austerity can take a shorter or a longer historical perspective. This chapter looks further back (to the postwar expansion of European welfare states) to better understand future transformations of both public institutions. Their long-term sustainability problems did not start with the financial crisis of 2008 but have been growing since the 1970s (Schäfer and Streeck 2013; Bonoli and Natali 2012; Hay and Wincott 2012). Financial austerity is not a post-crisis phenomenon. As a concept, it was used in welfare state research at least a decade earlier, although it does not seem to have been used in higher education studies until recently. Two quotations bring us to the heart of the matter: welfare states and universities are currently changing under adverse financial conditions caused by an array of interrelating and mutually reinforcing forces and their long-term financial sustainability is at stake across Europe. The welfare state is a “particular trademark of the European social model” (Svallfors 2012: 1), “the jewel in the crown” and a “fundamental part of what Europe stands for” (Giddens 2006: 14), as are tuition-free universities, the cornerstone of intergenerational social mobility in Continental Europe. The past trajectories of major types of welfare states and of universities in Europe tend to go hand in hand: first vastly expanding following the Second World War, and especially in the 1960s and 1970s, and then being in the state of permanent resource-driven and legitimacy-based “crisis” in the last two decades. Welfare states and universities, two critically important public institutions, seem to be under heavy attacks from the public, the media and politicians. Their long-term sustainability is being questioned, and solutions to their (real and perceived) problems are being sought at global, European, and national levels.

Yhteistä turvallisuutta rakentaen : poliisi- ja upseeriprofessioiden yhteiskehittelyn mahdollisuuksista

Poliisin rakenneuudistus Pora III ja Puolustusvoimauudistus 2011–2015 ovat olleet viime vuosien esimerkkejä julkisen sektorin työn tehostamisen vaatimuksista. Sekä Puolustusvoimilla että poliisilla, kahdella turvallisuusalan viranomaistaholla, on lakisääteiset tehtävänsä, jotka tulee työn tehostamisen vaatimuksista huolimatta suorittaa. Turvallisuusala yksityistyy vauhdilla, ja keskustelua käydään siitä, mitä tehtäviä viranomainen hoitaa itse, mitä annetaan kaupallisen toimijan tai järjestöjen hoidettavaksi ja mistä kansalainen vastaa itse jatkossa. Resurssi- ja tehostamisvaatimuksia mietittäessä nousee esille upseereiden kohdalla koko maan puolustus ja turvaaminen. Kyetäänkö tämän tehtävän täyttämiseen mahdollisessa sotatilanteessa enää nykyisellä tai mahdollisesti vähenevällä resursoinnilla? Poliisitoimen osalta vasteajat eri puolilla Suomea puhuttavat, samoin se, miten tehtäviä priorisoidaan hoidettavaksi. Saavatko kansalaiset enää perusoikeuksiinsa kuuluvaa arjen turvallisuutta, jonka vielä tänä päivänä katsotaan kuuluvan valtion perustehtäviin? Viranomaisten pitäisi tutkimukseen valittujen aineistojen sekä lakien perusteella hoitaa tehtävänsä laadukkaasti ja tasa-arvoisesti kaikkialla Suomessa. Nykyiset sisäistä ja ulkoista turvallisuutta käsittelevät asiakirjat, esimerkiksi strategiat, puhuvat laajasta turvallisuuskäsityksestä, sisäisen ja ulkoisen turvallisuuden rajojen hämärtymisestä globalisoitumisen seurauksena ja lisääntyvästä poikkihallinnollisesta yhteistyöstä toimintaa ohjaavana ajattelumallina. Viranomaisyhteisyötä tulisi lisätä osana normaalia toimintaa, samoin yhteistyötä järjestöjen, elinkeinoelämän ja jokaisen kansalaisen kanssa. Valtioneuvoston tulevaisuusselonteossa (2013) peräänkuulutetaan uusia, innovatiivisia tapoja hoitaa sekä valtion että kuntien tehtäviä. Yhteisen toiminnan kohteen eli laajan turvallisuuskäsityksen viitekehyksessä on mahdollisuus pohtia uudenlaista turvallisuusalan viranomaisyhteistyötä, eli etsiä perusteluja upseeri- ja poliisiprofession syvemmälle yhteistyölle – yhteiskehittelylle. Tutkimukseni tavoitteena on herätellä keskustelua siitä, onko yhteisen toiminnan kohteen löytymiselle edellytyksiä. Nähtävissä on, että valtiolle kuuluvia toimintoja tehostetaan jatkossakin. Yksi järkevä tapa tehostamisessa on löytää töiden rajapintoja ja yhdistää resurssit näiden osalta. Jotta toiminta olisi tehokasta, sen pitää olla osa jokapäiväistä toimintaa eikä perustua vain muutamiin yhteistoimintaharjoituksiin tai jo tapahtuneiden poikkeustilanteiden hoitoon. Suurin osa kriisiajan toiminnasta perustuu normaaliolojen toimintaan, jolloin sen lähtökohdat voisivat olla yhteisessä työssä ja alkaa jo koulutuksesta, mikä nostetaan tässä työssä yhtenä mahdollisuutena esille. Koulutuksellinen yhteistyö ja liikkuvuus ovat eurooppalaisen tutkintojen viitekehyksen perusteella mahdollista myös kahden eri hallinnonalan koulutuksessa. Tällaista koulutuksen tehostamista haetaan tällä hetkellä muualla yhteiskunnassa. Mutta halutaanko omasta toiminnasta ja tehtävistä luopua edes osittain ja tehdä yhteistyötä mahdollisesti oman työn hallinnan, vallan tai resurssien menettämisen pelossa? Vai onko kyse vain siitä, että yhteistyön syventämiselle ei ole nähty kovinkaan suurta tarvetta tai hyötyä eikä yhteistyö näytä tuovan mitään uutta ammattikuntien osaamiseen? Tutkimuksen aineisto koostuu valtionhallinnon aineistoista, kuten strategioista, mietinnöistä ja raporteista niin sisäisen kuin ulkoisen turvallisuuden alalta. Aineistona käytetään myös upseeri- (n=71) ja poliisipäällystöopiskelijoille (n=65) suunnattua kyselyä ja kirjoitelmaa tulevaisuuden turvallisuusasiantuntijuudesta vuonna 2030. Lisäksi opiskelijavastauksista tehtyä analyysia syvennetään molempien korkeakoulujen (Maanpuolustuskorkeakoulu ja Poliisiammattikorkeakoulu) rehtoreiden sekä molempien hallinnonalojen (puolustusministeriö sekä sisäministeriö) kansliapäälliköiden haastatteluilla. Aineistojen avulla pyritään herättelemään ajatuksia siitä, voisiko yhteisiä töitä löytyä yhteistyön pohjaksi. Tarkoituksena on perustella, miksi yhteistyötä kannattaa tehdä ja ikään kuin vastata etukäteen vastaväitteisiin, miksi sitä ei voitaisi tehdä. Strategioiden yhteistyön tahtotilaa verrataan muihin strategioiden toimenpide ehdotuksiin ja sitä kautta vielä kyselyaineistoon. Opiskelijakyselyllä haetaan näkemyksiä tulevaisuuden turvallisuusasiantuntijuudesta ja mahdollisesta yhteistyöstä sekä sen painopisteistä. Muilla asiantuntijahaastatteluilla haetaan korkeakoulujen sekä ministeriön tason näkemyksiä opiskelijoiden mielipiteisiin. Opiskelijakyselyn avulla on haluttu selvittää sitä, mitä jo työelämässä olleet mutta vaihteeksi opiskelevat sotatieteiden maisteriopiskelijat Maanpuolustuskorkeakoulussa ja poliisin päällystötutkinnon opiskelijat Poliisiammattikorkeakoulussa ajattelevat turvallisuusalan ja -asiantuntijuuden muutoksesta. Minkälaisena he näkevät oman tulevan työnsä ja yhteistyökentän muiden viranomaisten kanssa? Selvää opiskelijavastausten mukaan on se, että turvallisuus halutaan pitää jatkossakin viranomaisen vastuulla ja välttää viimeiseen asti yksityisen sektorin liiallista vastuuta enempää kuin on pakko. Yhteistyötä halutaan edelleen lisätä, ja erityisesti tämä koskee viranomaisten välistä yhteistyötä. Tutkimus on tietoisesti rajattu koskemaan kahta turvallisuusalan viranomaistoimijaa, ammattikorkeakoulutuksen käyneitä poliiseja ja Puolustusvoimien Maanpuolustuskorkeakoulussa opiskelevia upseereita, joiden tehtävistä ja koulutuksesta on löydettävissä yhteisiä rajapintoja ja yhteistyön alueita. Kiinnostus syventyä valittuun kahteen ammattialaan johtuu myös siitä, että usein esimerkiksi sisäasianhallinnon strategioissa Puolustusvoimat jätetään ulkopuolelle varsinkin normaaliolojen yhteistyötä tarkasteltaessa tai vain yksittäisen maininnan asteelle. Sama huomio on havaittavissa puolustushallinnon strategioista. Tämä nousee esille erityisesti alueellista yhteistyötä tai viranomaisyhteistyötä pohdittaessa. Silti sekä sisäministeriön että puolustusministeriön hallinnonalan strategiat ym. perustuvat laajaan turvallisuuskäsitykseen, ja usein eri ammattikuntia analysoitaessa puhutaan tehtävistä, joita tekevät useat ammattikunnat ja professiot. Puhutaan niin sanotuista harmaista alueista. Ministeriöiden tahtotilassa ja toiminnassa on tutkimukseni mukaan nähtävissä ristiriita. Koulutuksen osalta yhteistyön lisääminen on mahdollista etenkin nyt, kun Poliisiammattikorkeakoulussa peruskoulutus on muuttunut ammattikorkeakoulutasoiseksi ja näin tämän ammattikunnan professioasema koulutuksen näkökulmasta on vahvistunut entisestään. Käsittelenkin tutkimuksessani kahta professiota professiotutkimuksen perinteisiä kriteereitä käyttäen, eli rinnastaessani näitä kahta ammattia. Rinnastettavuus koulujen kesken on tullut mahdolliseksi sekä tutkintojen että osaamisen tarkastelun näkökulmasta. Tämän myötä myös molempia korkeakouluja hyödyttävää yhteistyötä olisi mahdollista miettiä osana muutakin hallinnon tehostamista ja rauhan ajan viranomaistoimintaa.

Fatores críticos de sucesso como antecedentes da aceitação de um sistema de informação em uma universidade federal

In recent decades the public sector comes under pressure in order to improve its performance. The use of Information Technology (IT) has been a tool increasingly used in reaching that goal. Thus, it has become an important issue in public organizations, particularly in institutions of higher education, determine which factors influence the acceptance and use of technology, impacting on the success of its implementation and the desired organizational results. The Technology Acceptance Model - TAM was used as the basis for this study and is based on the constructs perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. However, when it comes to integrated management systems due to the complexity of its implementation,organizational factors were added to thus seek further explanation of the acceptance of such systems. Thus, added to the model five TAM constructs related to critical success factors in implementing ERP systems, they are: support of top management, communication, training, cooperation, and technological complexity (BUENO and SALMERON, 2008). Based on the foregoing, launches the following research problem: What factors influence the acceptance and use of SIE / module academic at the Federal University of Para, from the users' perception of teachers and technicians? The purpose of this study was to identify the influence of organizational factors, and behavioral antecedents of behavioral intention to use the SIE / module academic UFPA in the perspective of teachers and technical users. This is applied research, exploratory and descriptive, quantitative with the implementation of a survey, and data collection occurred through a structured questionnaire applied to a sample of 229 teachers and 30 technical and administrative staff. Data analysis was carried out through descriptive statistics and structural equation modeling with the technique of partial least squares (PLS). Effected primarily to assess the measurement model, which were verified reliability, convergent and discriminant validity for all indicators and constructs. Then the structural model was analyzed using the bootstrap resampling technique like. In assessing statistical significance, all hypotheses were supported. The coefficient of determination (R ²) was high or average in five of the six endogenous variables, so the model explains 47.3% of the variation in behavioral intention. It is noteworthy that among the antecedents of behavioral intention (BI) analyzed in this study, perceived usefulness is the variable that has a greater effect on behavioral intention, followed by ease of use (PEU) and attitude (AT). Among the organizational aspects (critical success factors) studied technological complexity (TC) and training (ERT) were those with greatest effect on behavioral intention to use, although these effects were lower than those produced by behavioral factors (originating from TAM). It is pointed out further that the support of senior management (TMS) showed, among all variables, the least effect on the intention to use (BI) and was followed by communications (COM) and cooperation (CO), which exert a low effect on behavioral intention (BI). Therefore, as other studies on the TAM constructs were adequate for the present research. Thus, the study contributed towards proving evidence that the Technology Acceptance Model can be applied to predict the acceptance of integrated management systems, even in public. Keywords: Technology

Processo de implantação de um sistema integrado de gestão em uma organização pública à luz da teoria da hospitalidade :um estudo de caso

In the present time, public organizations are employing more and more solutions that uses information technology in order to ofer more transparency and better services for all citizens. Integrated Systems are IT which carry in their kernel features of integration and the use of a unique database. These systems bring several benefits and face some obstacles that make their adoption difficult. The conversion to a integrated system may take years and, thus, the study of the adoption of this IT in public sector organizations become very stimulant due to some peculiarities of this sector and the features of this technology. First of all, information about the particular integrated system in study and about its process of conversion are offered. Then, the researcher designs the configuration of the conversion process aim of this study the agents envolved and the moments and the tools used to support the process in order to elaborate the methodology of the conversion process understood as the set of procedures and tools used during all the conversion process. After this, the researcher points out, together with all the members of the conversion team, the negative and positive factors during the project. Finally, these factors were analysed through the Hospitality Theory lens which, in the researcher opinion, was very useful to understand the elements, events and moments that interfered in the project. The results consolidated empirically the Hospitality Theory presumptions, showing yet a limitation of this theory in the case in study

Affecting Factors of Public Employees’ Ganizational Commitment

Purpose – The aim of this chapter is to shed some light on the antecedents of organizational commitment, the mediating role of job engagement and job satisfaction as determinants of organizational commitment within the public sector environment, and the effects that national cultural values may have on these relationships. Approach – This paper presents a review of the works that, from both theoretical and empirical points of view, explore the affecting factors of public employees’ organizational commitment in an international setting. Findings – A comprehensive model has been developed, detailing the expectations on the influence that these factors might have on public employees’ level of commitment, either as mediators or moderators. Research limitations/implications – The main limitation is the paper’s theoretical nature; the subsequent implication is a future empirical research that may prove or disprove these theoretical findings. In addition, there are some other possible mediating factors and antecedents which may be of interest for future researchers. Originality/value – This comprehensive review of the extant literature may provide academics and public managers with a deeper comprehension of how organizational commitment might be achieved, and why some practices may or may not be transferrable from one country to another.

Assessing public spending efficiency in 20 OECD countries

Mestrado em Economia Monetária e Financeira

Assessing public spending efficiency in 20 OECD countries

This study follows the framework of Afonso, Schuknecht, and Tanzi (2005), aiming to look at the public expenditure of 20 OECD countries for the period 2009-2013, from the per- spective of efficiency and assess if these developed countries are performing efficiently compared to each other. Public Sector Performance (PSP) and Public Sector Efficiency (PSE) indicators were constructed and Data Envelopment Analysis was conducted. The results show that the only country that performed on the efficiency frontier is Switzerland. The average input-oriented efficiency score is equal to 0.732. That is, on average countries could have reduced the level of public expenditure by 26.8% and still achieved the same level of public performance. The average output-oriented efficiency score is 0.769 denoting that on average the sample countries could have increased their performance by 23.1% by employing the same level of public expenditure.

Manual de procedimentos - apoio na gestão da mudança: Trabalho de Projecto

A aproximação dos serviços às populações e a melhoria dos serviços prestados na administração pública leva a que estas organizações tenham de estar constantemente a alterar a sua forma de agir para se conseguirem adequar ao meio onde estão inseridas. É, portanto, necessário um processo de mudança devidamente organizado e gerido. As organizações públicas sentiram a necessidade de adotar sistemas de informação e de controlo de gestão adequados de forma a melhorar as tomadas de decisões, introduzir a avaliação de desempenho e aumentar os índices de eficiência, eficácia e qualidade dos serviços públicos. No entanto, qualquer processo de mudança, por mais necessário e bem preparado que seja, enfrenta sempre resistência, seja ela a nível individual, seja a nível organizacional. É necessário saber gerir estas mudanças, para tal toma-se importante a constituição de uma boa equipa orientadora da mudança, com capacidade de liderança, necessária para uma melhor aceitação por parte dos funcionários envolvidos. Não menos importante é a medição da performance que visa produzir informação relevante para a melhoria da gestão e das tomadas de decisões, contribuindo assim para uma melhoria global dos resultados. O Balanced Scorecard pode ser a ferramenta ideal para trazer inovação aos serviços públicos. Assim, este trabalho de projeto consiste, depois de uma análise às reformas que tem vindo a ocorrer na administração pública bem como aos modelos e ferramentas existentes para a avaliação do desempenho do sector público, na elaboração de um Manual de Procedimentos, que servirá de base na reorganização dos Serviços da Divisão Administrativa da Câmara Municipal de Tomar que se encontra numa fase de mudança, manual esse que servirá também para melhoria do desempenho dos Serviços e para uma possível implementação do Balanced Scorecard. ABSTRACT: The alignment of services to citizens and improve services in public administration means that these organizations have to constantly change their ways if they can adapt to the environment where they operate. It is therefore a necessary process of change properly organized and managed. Public organizations have felt the need for information systems and monitoring of appropriate management to improve decision making, introduce the evaluation of performance and increasing levels of efficiency, effectiveness and quality of public services. However, any process of change, however necessary and well-prepared it is, always face resistance, either individually or at the organizational level. You must know how to manage these changes, for such it is important to set up a good team guiding change, and leadership skills necessary for better acceptance by the employees involved. No less important is the measurement of performance that aims to produce relevant information for improved management and decision making, thus contributing to an overall improvement in results. The Balanced Scorecard can be an ideal tool to bring innovation to public services. Thus, this study design is, after a review of the reforms that have been taking place in public administration and the existing models and tools for evaluating the performance of the public sector, development of a Procedures Manual, which is basic the reorganization of the Administrative Services Division of the City Council to take in a phase of change, that this manual will also serve to improve the performance of services and a possible implementation of the Balanced Scorecard.

Public service motivation in public and nonprofit service providers: The cases of Belarus and Poland

The work motivation construct is central to the theory and practice of many social science disciplines. Yet, due to the novelty of validated measures appropriate for a deep cross-national comparison, studies that contrast different administrative regimes remain scarce. This study represents an initial empirical effort to validate the Public Service Motivation (PSM) instrument proposed by Kim and colleagues (2013) in a previously unstudied context. The two former communist countries analyzed in this dissertation—Belarus and Poland—followed diametrically opposite development strategies: a fully decentralized administrative regime in Poland and a highly centralized regime in Belarus. The employees (n = 677) of public and nonprofit organizations in the border regions of Podlaskie Wojewodstwo (Poland) and Hrodna Voblasc (Belarus) are the subjects of study. ^ Confirmatory factor analysis revealed three dimensions of public service motivation in the two regions: compassion, self-sacrifice, and attraction to public service. The statistical models tested in this dissertation suggest that nonprofit sector employees exhibit higher levels of PSM than their public sector counterparts. Nonprofit sector employees also reveal a similar set of values and work attitudes across the countries. Thus, the study concludes that in terms of PSM, employees of nonprofit organizations constitute a homogenous group that exists atop the administrative regimes. ^ However, the findings propose significant differences between public sector agencies across the two countries. Contrary to expectations, data suggest that organization centralization in Poland is equal to—or for some items even higher than—that of Belarus. We can conclude that the absence of administrative decentralization of service provision in a country does not necessarily undermine decentralized practices within organizations. Further analysis reveals strong correlations between organization centralization and PSM for the Polish sample. Meanwhile, in Belarus, correlations between organization centralization items and PSM are weak and mostly insignificant. ^ The analysis indicates other factors beyond organization centralization that significantly impact PSM in both sectors. PSM of the employees in the studied region is highly correlated with their participation in religious practices, political parties, or labor unions as well as location of their organization in a capital and type of social service provided.^

Role of microfinance to support agricultural climate change adaptations in Indonesia: Encouraging private sector participation in climate finance

The demands of mitigation and adaptation policies are important to understanding a country’s climate change preparation by providing microfinance in the agricultural sector. This could be seen as a strategy to fight against the challenges of future food security. In 2014, Indonesia established climate change adaptation policies. This legislation aims to pave the way for making actions on climate change adaptation mainstream in national and local development planning. Public and private finance have supported the implementation of the climate actions. However, most funding is still used for mitigation. Adaptation finance needs support, especially in agriculture. This research paper studies opportunities for microfinance to play a role together with existing resources in supporting climate change adaptation in Indonesia. The data was acquired and analysed through a literature review, analysis of case studies and interviews with stakeholders in the climate change-related financial sector. The central findings regarding the opportunity for microfinance to contribute to the existing schemes in Indonesian climate change adaptation finance for agriculture are worthy of the result. This study found that adaptation finance is mostly used for indirect activities. Meanwhile, local communities, and farmers in particular, need directly targeted measures to adapt to climate change. An alternative approach is providing microfinance, insurance and capacity development for farmers to produce high quality agricultural products. This would contribute to optimizing the agri-food value chain, which supports socio-economic development of stakeholders, especially farmers. Hence, microfinance appears to be one potential solution to support direct climate change adaptation actions for the agricultural sector. However, this may not be strong enough to finance the entire needs for agricultural climate actions. Adaptation is contextual, so it has to be grounded in the needs of local communities. Microfinance needs public sectors support as well as other resources from the private sector. In the case of rapid response to disasters, which often destroy the agricultural sector, microfinance should be advantageous in supporting adaptation. However, in reality, it does not work, as it is prevented by regulations. So, this can be an area the public sector can support as a risk-taker as well as by providing initial funds and resources for scaling up efforts.

Evaluation of Iowa's public mental health system : task two report, 1998

The purpose of this evaluation is to assess the performance of Iowa's mental health system in relation to current standards, benchmarks and best practices found in public health systems in the United States.