Hepatic parasympathetic nerve dysfunction involved in the deregulation of postprandial whole-body insulin sensitivity:a road to diabetes and associated pathologies

FCM: UC Fisiologia - Teses de Doutoramento

Estudo da deformação miocárdica para detecção precoce de disfunção ventricular esquerda em doentes submetidos a quimioterapia com antraciclinas

Mestrado em Tecnologia de Diagnóstico e Intervenção Cardiovascular - Área de especialização: Ultrassonografia cardiovascular

An uncertainty and sensitivity analysis applied to the prioritisation of pharmaceuticals as surface water contaminants from wastewater treatment plant direct emissions

In this study, the concentration probability distributions of 82 pharmaceutical compounds detected in the effluents of 179 European wastewater treatment plants were computed and inserted into a multimedia fate model. The comparative ecotoxicological impact of the direct emission of these compounds from wastewater treatment plants on freshwater ecosystems, based on a potentially affected fraction (PAF) of species approach, was assessed to rank compounds based on priority. As many pharmaceuticals are acids or bases, the multimedia fate model accounts for regressions to estimate pH-dependent fate parameters. An uncertainty analysis was performed by means of Monte Carlo analysis, which included the uncertainty of fate and ecotoxicity model input variables, as well as the spatial variability of landscape characteristics on the European continental scale. Several pharmaceutical compounds were identified as being of greatest concern, including 7 analgesics/anti-inflammatories, 3 β-blockers, 3 psychiatric drugs, and 1 each of 6 other therapeutic classes. The fate and impact modelling relied extensively on estimated data, given that most of these compounds have little or no experimental fate or ecotoxicity data available, as well as a limited reported occurrence in effluents. The contribution of estimated model input variables to the variance of freshwater ecotoxicity impact, as well as the lack of experimental abiotic degradation data for most compounds, helped in establishing priorities for further testing. Generally, the effluent concentration and the ecotoxicity effect factor were the model input variables with the most significant effect on the uncertainty of output results.

Persistent organic pollutant levels in human visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue in obese individuals - Depot differences and dysmetabolism implications

Background: The role of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) with endocrine disrupting activity in the aetiology of obesity and other metabolic dysfunctions has been recently highlighted. Adipose tissue (AT) is a common site of POPs accumulation where they can induce adverse effects on human health. Objectives: To evaluate the presence of POPs in human visceral (vAT) and subcutaneous (scAT) adipose tissue in a sample of Portuguese obese patients that underwent bariatric surgery, and assess their putative association with metabolic disruption preoperatively, as well as with subsequent body mass index (BMI) reduction. Methods: AT samples (n=189) from obese patients (BMI ≥35) were collected and the levels of 13 POPs were determined by gas chromatography with electron-capture detection (GC-ECD). Anthropometric and biochemical data were collected at the time of surgery. BMI variation was evaluated after 12 months and adipocyte size was measured in AT samples. Results: Our data confirm that POPs are pervasive in this obese population (96.3% of detection on both tissues), their abundance increasing with age (RS=0.310, p<0.01) and duration of obesity (RS=0.170, p<0.05). We observed a difference in AT depot POPs storage capability, with higher levels of ΣPOPs in vAT (213.9±204.2 compared to 155.1±147.4 ng/g of fat, p<0.001), extremely relevant when evaluating their metabolic impact. Furthermore, there was a positive correlation between POP levels and the presence of metabolic syndrome components, namely dysglycaemia and hypertension, and more importantly with cardiovascular risk (RS=0.277, p<0.01), with relevance for vAT (RS=0.315, p<0.01). Finally, we observed an interesting relation of higher POP levels with lower weight loss in older patients. Conclusion: Our sample of obese subjects allowed us to highlight the importance of POPs stored in AT on the development of metabolic dysfunction in a context of obesity, shifting the focus to their metabolic effects and not only for their recognition as environmental obesogens.

Functional significance of adenosine in carotid body chemosensory activity in control and chronically hypoxic animals

ABSTRACT: Carotid bodies (CB) are peripheral chemoreceptor organs sensing changes in arterial blood O2, CO2 and pH levels. Hypoxia and acidosis or hypercapnia activates CB chemoreceptor cells, which respond by releasing neurotransmitters in order to increase the action potential frequency in their sensory nerve, the carotid sinus nerve (CSN). CSN activity is integrated in the brainstem to induce a fan of cardiorespiratory reflex responses, aimed at normalising the altered blood gases. Exogenously applied adenosine (Ado) increases CSN chemosensory activity inducing hyperventilation through activation of A2 receptors. The importance of the effects of adenosine in chemoreception was reinforced by data obtained in humans, in which the intravenous infusion of Ado causes hyperventilation and dyspnoea, an effect that has been attributed to the activation of CB because Ado does not cross blood-brain barrier and because the ventilatory effects are higher the closer to the CB it is injected. The present work was performed in order to establish the functional significance of adenosine in chemoreception at the carotid body in control and chronically hypoxic rats. To achieve this objective we investigated: 1) The release of adenosine from a rat carotid body in vitro preparation in response to moderate hypoxia and the specificity of this release. We also investigated the metabolic pathways of adenosine production and release in the organ in normoxia and hypoxia; 2) The modulation of adenosine/ATP release from rat carotid body chemoreceptor cells by nicotinic ACh receptors; 3) The effects of caffeine on peripheral control of breathing and the identity of the adenosine receptors involved in adenosine and caffeine effects on carotid body chemoreceptors; 4) The interactions between dopamine D2 receptors and adenosine A2B receptors that modulate the release of catecholamines (CA) from the rat carotid body; 5) The effect of chronic caffeine intake i.e. the continuous blockage of adenosine receptors thereby simulating a caffeine dependence, on the carotid body function in control and chronically hypoxic rats. The methodologies used in this work included: molecular biology techniques (e.g. immunocytochemistry and western-blot), biochemical techniques (e.g. neurotransmitter quantification by HPLC, bioluminescence and radioisotopic methods), electrophysiological techniques (e.g. action potential recordings) and ventilatory recordings using whole-body plethysmography. It was observed that: 1) CB chemoreceptor sensitivity to hypoxia could be related to its low threshold for the release of adenosine because moderate acute hypoxia (10% O2) increased adenosine concentrations released from the CB by 44% but was not a strong enough stimulus to evoke adenosine release from superior cervical ganglia and arterial tissue; 2) Acetylcholine (ACh) modulates the release of adenosine/5’-adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from CB in moderate hypoxia through the activation of nicotinic receptors with α4 and ß2 receptor subunits, suggesting that the excitatory role of ACh in chemosensory activity includes indirect activation of purinergic receptors by adenosine and ATP, which strongly supports the hypothesis that ATP/adenosine are important mediators in chemotransduction; 3) adenosine increases the release of CA from rat CB chemoreceptor cells via A2B receptors; 4) the inhibitory effects of caffeine on CB chemoreceptors are mediated by antagonism of postsynaptic A2A and presynaptic A2B adenosine receptors indicating that chemosensory activity elicited by hypoxia is controlled by adenosine; 5) The release of CA from rat CB chemoreceptor cells is modulated by adenosine through an antagonistic interaction between A2B and D2 receptors, for the first time herein described; 6) chronic caffeine treatment did not significantly alter the basal function of CB in normoxic rats assessed as the dynamics of their neurotransmitters, dopamine, ATP and adenosine, and the CSN chemosensory activity. In contrast, the responses to hypoxia in these animals were facilitated by chronic caffeine intake because it increased the ventilatory response, slightly increased CSN chemosensory activity and increased dopamine (DA) and ATP release; 7) In comparison with normoxic rats, chronically hypoxic rats exhibited an increase in several parameters: ventilatory hypoxic response; basal and hypoxic CSN activity; tyrosine hydroxylase expression, CA content, synthesis and release; basal and hypoxic adenosine release; and in contrast a normal basal release and diminished hypoxia-induced ATP release; 8) Finally, in contrast to chronically hypoxic rats, chronic caffeine treatment did not alter the basal CSN chemosensory activity. Nevertheless, the responses to mild and intense hypoxia, and hypercapnia, were diminished. This inhibitory effect of chronic caffeine in CB output is compensated by central mechanisms, as the minute ventilation parameter in basal conditions and in response to acute hypoxic challenges remained unaltered in rats exposed to chronic hypoxia. We can conclude that adenosine both in acute and chronically hypoxic conditions have an excitatory role in the CB chemosensory activity, acting directly on adenosine A2A receptors present postsynaptically in CSN, and acting presynaptically via A2B receptors controlling the release of dopamine in chemoreceptor cells. We suggest that A2B -D2 adenosine / dopamine interactions at the CB could explain the increase in CA metabolism caused by chronic ingestion of caffeine during chronic hypoxia. It was also concluded that adenosine facilitates CB sensitisation to chronic hypoxia although this effect is further compensated at the central nervous system.-------- RESUMO: Os corpos carotídeos (CB) são pequenos orgãos emparelhados localizados na bifurcação da artéria carótida comum. Estes órgãos são sensíveis a variações na PaO2, PaCO2, pH e temperatura sendo responsáveis pela hiperventilação que ocorre em resposta à hipóxia, contribuindo também para a hiperventilação que acompanha a acidose metabólica e respiratória. As células quimiorreceptoras (tipo I ou glómicas) do corpo carotídeo respondem às variações de gases arteriais libertando neurotransmissores que activam as terminações sensitivas do nervo do seio carotídeo (CSN) conduzindo a informação ao centro respiratório central. Está ainda por esclarecer qual o neurotransmissor (ou os neurotransmissores) responsável pela sinalização hipóxica no corpo carotídeo. A adenosina é um neurotransmissor excitatório no CB que aumenta a actividade eléctrica do CSN induzindo a hiperventilação através da activação de receptores A2. A importância destes efeitos da adenosina na quimiorrecepção, descritos em ratos e gatos, foi reforçada por resultados obtidos em voluntários saudáveis onde a infusão intravenosa de adenosina em induz hiperventilação e dispneia, efeito atribuído a uma activação do CB uma vez que a adenosina não atravessa a barreira hemato-encefálica e o efeito é quanto maior quanto mais perto do CB for a administração de adenosina. O presente trabalho foi realizado com o objectivo de esclarecer qual o significado funcional da adenosina na quimiorrecepção no CB em animais controlo e em animais submetidos a hipoxia crónica mantida. Para alcançar este objectivo investigou-se: 1) o efeito da hipóxia moderada sobre a libertação de adenosina numa preparação in vitro de CB e a especificidade desta mesma libertação comparativamente com outros tecidos não quimiossensitivos, assim como as vias metabólicas de produção e libertação de adenosina no CB em normoxia e hipóxia; 2) a modulação da libertação de adenosina/ATP das células quimiorreceptoras do CB por receptores nicotínicos de ACh; 3) os efeitos da cafeína no controlo periférico da ventilação e a identidade dos receptores de adenosina envolvidos nos efeitos da adenosina e da cafeína nos quimiorreceptores do CB; 4) as interacções entre os receptores D2 de dopamina e os receptores A2B de adenosina que modulam a libertação de catecolaminas (CA) no CB de rato e; 5) o efeito da ingestão crónica de cafeína, isto é, o contínuo bloqueio e dos receptores de adenosina, simulando assim o consumo crónico da cafeína, tal como ocorre na população humana mundial e principalmente no ocidente, na função do corpo carotídeo em ratos controlo e em ratos submetidos a hipoxia crónica. Os métodos utilizados neste trabalho incluíram: técnicas de biologia molecular como imunocitoquímica e western-blot; técnicas bioquímicas, tais como a quantificação de neurotransmissores por HPLC, bioluminescência e métodos radioisotópicos; técnicas electrofisiológicas como o registro de potenciais eléctricos do nervo do seio carotídeo in vitro; e registros ventilatórios in vivo em animais não anestesiados e em livre movimento (pletismografia). Observou-se que: 1) a especificidade dos quimiorreceptores do CB como sensores de O2 está correlacionada com o baixo limiar de libertação de adenosina em resposta à hipóxia dado que a libertação de adenosina do CB aumenta 44% em resposta a uma hipóxia moderada (10% O2), que no entanto não é um estímulo suficientemente intenso para evocar a libertação de adenosina do gânglio cervical superior ou do tecido arterial. Observou-se também que aproximadamente 40% da adenosina libertada pelo CB provém do catabolismo extracelular do ATP quer em normóxia quer em hipóxia moderada, sendo que PO2 reduzidas induzem a libertação de adenosina via activação do sistema de transporte equilibrativo ENT1. 2) a ACh modula a libertação de adenosina /ATP do CB em resposta à hipoxia moderada sugerindo que o papel excitatório da ACh na actividade quimiossensora inclui a activação indirecta de receptores purinérgicos pela adenosina e ATP, indicando que a adenosina e o ATP poderiam actuar como mediadores importantes no processo de quimiotransducção uma vez que: a) a activação dos receptores nicotínicos de ACh no CB em normóxia estimula a libertação de adenosina (max 36%) provindo aparentemente da degradação extracelular do ATP. b) a caracterização farmacológica dos receptores nicotínicos de ACh envolvidos na estimulação da libertação de adenosina do CB revelou que os receptores nicotínicos de ACh envolvidos são constituídos por subunidades α4ß2. 3) a adenosina modula a libertação de catecolaminas das células quimiorreceptoras do CB através de receptores de adenosina A2B dado que: a)a cafeína, um antagonista não selectivo dos receptores de adenosina, inibiu a libertação de CA quer em normóxia quer em resposta a estímulos de baixa intensidade sendo ineficaz na libertação induzida por estímulos de intensidade superior; b) o DPCPX e do MRS1754 mimetizaram os efeitos da cafeína no CB sendo o SCH58621 incapaz de induzir a libertação de CA indicando que os efeitos da cafeína seriam mediados por receptores A2B de adenosina cuja presença nas células quimiorreceptoras do CB demonstramos por imunocitoquímica. 4) a aplicação aguda de cafeína inibiu em 52% a actividade quimiossensora do CSN induzida pela hipóxia sendo este efeito mediado respectivamente por receptores de adenosina A2A pós-sinápticos e A2B pré-sinápticos indicando que a actividade quimiossensora induzida pela hipóxia é controlada pela adenosina. 5) existe uma interacção entre os receptores A2B e D2 que controla a libertação de CA do corpo carotídeo de rato uma vez que: a) os antagonistas dos receptores D2, domperidona e haloperidol, aumentaram a libertação basal e evocada de CA das células quimiorreceptoras confirmando a presença de autorreceptores D2 no CB de rato que controlam a libertação de CA através de um mecanismo de feed-back negativo. b) o sulpiride, um antagonista dos receptores D2, aumentou a libertação de CA das células quimiorreceptoras revertendo o efeito inibitório da cafeína sobre esta mesma libertação; c) a propilnorapomorfina, um agonista D2 inibiu a libertação basal e evocada de CA sendo este efeito revertido pela NECA, um agonista dos receptores A2B. O facto de a NECA potenciar o efeito do haloperidol na libertação de CA sugere que a interacção entre os receptores D2 e A2B poderia também ocorrer ao nível de segundos mensageiros, como o cAMP. 6) a ingestão crónica de cafeína em ratos controlo (normóxicos) não alterou significativamente a função basal do CB medida como a dinâmica dos seus neurotransmissores, dopamina, ATP e adenosina e como actividade quimiossensora do CSN. Contrariamente aos efeitos basais, a ingestão crónica de cafeína facilitou a resposta à hipóxia, dado que aumentou o efeito no volume minuto respiratórioapresentando-se também uma clara tendência para aumentar a actividade quimiossensora do CSN e aumentar a libertação de ATP e dopamina.7) após um período de 15 dias de hipóxia crónica era evidente o fenómeno de aclimatização dado que as respostas ventilatórias à hipóxia se encontram aumentadas, assim como a actividade quimiossensora do CSN basal e induzida pela hipóxia. As alterações observadas no metabolismo da dopamina, assim como na libertação basal de dopamina e de adenosina poderiam contribuir para a aclimatização durante a hipoxia crónica. A libertação aumentada de adenosina em resposta à hipóxia aguda em ratos hipóxicos crónicos sugere um papel da adenosina na manutenção/aumento das respostas ventilatórias à hipóxia aguda durante a hipóxia crónica. Observou-se também que a libertação de ATP induzida pela hipóxia aguda se encontra diminuída em hipóxia crónica, contudo a ingestão crónica de cafeína reverteu este efeito para valores similares aos valores controlo, sugerindo que a adenosina possa modular a libertação de ATP em hipóxia crónica. 8) a ingestão crónica de cafeína em ratos hipóxicos crónicos induziu o aumento do metabolismo de CA no CB, medido como expressão de tirosina hidroxilase, conteúdo, síntese e libertação de CA. 9) a ingestão crónica de cafeína não provocou quaisquer alterações na actividade quimiossensora do CSN em ratos hipóxicos crónicos no entanto, as respostas do CSN à hipóxia aguda intensa e moderada e à hipercapnia encontram-se diminuídas. Este efeito inibitório que provém da ingestão crónica de cafeína parece ser compensado ao nível dos quimiorreceptores centrais dado que os parâmetros ventilatórios em condições basais e em resposta à hipoxia aguda não se encontram modificados em ratos expostos durante 15 dias a uma atmosfera hipóxica. Resumindo podemos assim concluir que a adenosina quer em situações de hipoxia aguda quer em condições de hipoxia crónica tem um papel excitatório na actividade quimiossensora do CB actuando directamente nos receptores A2A presentes pós-sinapticamente no CSN, assim como facilitando a libertação de dopamina pré-sinapticamente via receptores A2B presentes nas células quimiorreceptoras. A interacção negativa entre os receptores A2B e D2 observadas nas células quimiorreceptoras do CB poderia explicar o aumento do metabolismo de CA observado após a ingestão crónica de cafeína em animais hipóxicos. Conclui-se ainda que durante a aclimatização à hipóxia a acção inibitória da cafeína, em termos de resposta ventilatória, mediada pelos quimiorreceptores periféricos é compensada pelos efeitos excitatórios desta xantina ao nível do quimiorreceptores centrais.------- RESUMEN Los cuerpos carotídeos (CB) son órganos emparejados que están localizados en la bifurcación de la arteria carótida común. Estos órganos son sensibles a variaciones en la PaO2, en la PaCO2, pH y temperatura siendo responsables de la hiperventilación que ocurre en respuesta a la hipoxia, contribuyendo también a la hiperventilación que acompaña a la acidosis metabólica y respiratoria. Las células quimiorreceptoras (tipo I o glómicas) del cuerpo carotídeo responden a las variaciones de gases arteriales liberando neurotransmissores que activan las terminaciones sensitivas del nervio del seno carotídeo (CSN) llevando la información al centro respiratorio central. Todavía esta por clarificar cual el neurotransmisor (o neurotransmisores) responsable por la señalización hipóxica en el CB. La adenosina es un neurotransmisor excitatório en el CB ya que aumenta la actividad del CSN e induce la hiperventilación a través de la activación de receptores de adenosina del subtipo A2. La importancia de estos efectos de la adenosina en la quimiorrecepción, descritos en ratas y gatos, ha sido fuertemente reforzada por resultados obtenidos en voluntarios sanos en los que la infusión intravenosa de adenosina induce hiperventilación y dispnea, efectos estés que han sido atribuidos a una activación del CB ya que la adenosina no cruza la barrera hemato-encefalica y el efecto es tanto más grande cuanto más cercana del CB es la administración. Este trabajo ha sido realizado con el objetivo de investigar cual el significado funcional de la adenosina en la quimiorrecepción en el CB en animales controlo y en animales sometidos a hipoxia crónica sostenida. Para alcanzar este objetivo se ha estudiado: 1) el efecto de la hipoxia moderada en la liberación de adenosina en una preparación in vitro de CB y la especificidad de esta liberación en comparación con otros tejidos no-quimiosensitivos, así como las vías metabólicas de producción y liberación de adenosina del órgano en normoxia y hipoxia; 2) la modulación de la liberación de adenosina/ATP de las células quimiorreceptoras del CB por receptores nicotínicos de ACh; 3) los efectos de la cafeína en el controlo periférico de la ventilación y la identidad de los receptores de adenosina involucrados en los efectos de la adenosina y cafeína en los quimiorreceptores del CB; 4) las interacciones entre los receptores D2 de dopamina y los receptores A2B de adenosina que modulan la liberación de catecolaminas (CA) en el CB de rata y; 5) el efecto de la ingestión crónica de cafeína, es decir, el bloqueo sostenido de los receptores de adenosina, simulando la dependencia de cafeína observada en la populación mundial del occidente, en la función del CB en ratas controlo y sometidas a hipoxia crónica sostenida. Los métodos utilizados en este trabajo incluirán: técnicas de biología molecular como imunocitoquímica y western-blot; técnicas bioquímicas, tales como la cuantificación de neurotransmissores por HPLC, bioluminescencia y métodos radioisotópicos; técnicas electrofisiológicas como el registro de potenciales eléctricos del nervio do seno carotídeo in vitro; y registros ventilatórios in vivo en animales no anestesiados y en libre movimiento (pletismografia). Se observó que: 1) la sensibilidad de los quimiorreceptores de CB esta correlacionada con un bajo umbral de liberación de adenosina en respuesta a la hipoxia ya que en respuesta a una hipoxia moderada (10% O2) la liberación de adenosina en el CB aumenta un 44%, sin embargo esta PaO2 no es un estimulo suficientemente fuerte para inducir la liberación de adenosina del ganglio cervical superior o del tejido arterial; se observó también que aproximadamente 40% de la adenosina liberada del CB proviene del catabolismo extracelular del ATP en normoxia y en hipoxia moderada, y que bajas PO2 inducen la liberación de adenosina vía activación del sistema de transporte equilibrativo ENT1. 2) la ACh modula la liberación de adenosina /ATP del CB en respuesta a la hipóxia moderada lo que sugiere que el papel excitatório de la ACh en la actividad quimiosensora incluye la activación indirecta de receptores purinérgicos por la adenosina y el ATP, indicando que la adenosina y el ATP pueden actuar como mediadores importantes en el proceso de quimiotransducción ya que: a) la activación de los receptores nicotínicos de ACh en el CB en normoxia estimula la liberación de adenosina (max 36%) que aparentemente proviene de la degradación extracelular del ATP. Se observó también que este aumento de adenosina en el CB en hipoxia ha sido antagonizado parcialmente por antagonistas de estos mismos receptores; b) la caracterización farmacológica de los receptores nicotínicos de ACh involucrados en la estimulación de la liberación de adenosina del CB ha revelado que los receptores nicotínicos de ACh involucrados son constituidos por sub-unidades α4ß2. 3) la adenosina modula la liberación de CA de las células quimiorreceptoras del CB a través de receptores de adenosina A2B ya que: a) la cafeína, un antagonista no selectivo de los receptores de adenosina, ha inhibido la liberación de CA en normoxia y en respuesta a estímulos de baja intensidad siendo ineficaz en la liberación inducida por estímulos de intensidad superior; b) el DPCPX y el MRS1754 ha mimetizado los efectos de la cafeína en el CB y el SCH58621 ha sido incapaz de inducir la liberación de CA lo que sugiere que los efectos de la cafeína son mediados por receptores A2B de adenosina que están localizados pré-sinapticamente en las células quimiorreceptoras del CB. 4) la aplicación aguda de cafeína ha inhibido en 52% la actividad quimiosensora del CSN inducida por la hipoxia siendo este efecto mediado respectivamente por receptores de adenosina A2A pós-sinápticos y A2B pré-sinápticos lo que indica que la actividad quimiosensora inducida por la hipoxia es controlada por la adenosina. 5) existe una interacción entre los receptores A2B y D2 que controla la liberación de CA del CB de rata ya que: a) el sulpiride, un antagonista de los receptores D2, ha aumentado la liberación de CA de las células quimiorreceptoras revertiendo el efecto inhibitorio de la cafeína sobre esta misma liberación; b) los antagonistas de los receptores D2, domperidona y haloperidol, han aumentado la liberación basal e evocada de CA de las células quimiorreceptoras confirmando la presencia de autorreceptores D2 en el CB de rata que controlan la liberación de CA a través de un mecanismo de feed-back negativo; c) la propilnorapomorfina, un agonista D2, ha inhibido la liberación basal e evocada de CA sendo este efecto revertido por la NECA, un agonista de los receptores A2B. Ya que la NECA potencia el efecto del haloperidol en la liberación de CA la interacción entre los D2 y A2B puede también ocurrir al nivel de segundos mensajeros, como el cAMP. 6) la ingestión crónica de cafeína en ratas controlo (normóxicas) no ha cambiado significativamente la función basal del CB medida como la dinámica de sus neurotransmisores, dopamina, ATP y adenosina y como actividad quimiosensora del CSN. Al revés de lo que pasa con los efectos básales, la ingestión crónica de cafeína facilitó la respuesta a la hipóxia, ya que ha aumentado la respuesta ventilatória medida como volumen minuto presentando también una clara tendencia para aumentar la actividad quimiosensora del CSN y aumentar la liberación de ATP y dopamina. 7. Después de un período de 15 días de hipoxia crónica se puede observar el fenómeno de climatización ya que las respuestas ventilatórias a la hipoxia están aumentadas, así como la actividad quimiosensora del CSN basal e inducida por la hipoxia. Los cambios observados en el metabolismo de la dopamina, así como en la liberación basal de dopamina y de adenosina podrían contribuir para la climatización en hipoxia crónica. El aumento en la liberación de adenosina en respuesta a la hipoxia aguda en ratas sometidas a hipoxia crónica sugiere un papel para la adenosina en el mantenimiento/aumento de las respuestas ventilatórias a la hipoxia aguda en hipoxia crónica sostenida. Se ha observado también que la liberación de ATP inducida por la hipoxia aguda está disminuida en hipoxia crónica y que la ingestión crónica de cafeína reverte este efecto para valores similares a los valores controlo, sugiriendo que la adenosina podría modular la liberación de ATP en hipoxia crónica. 8. la ingestión crónica de cafeína ha inducido el aumento del metabolismo de CA en el CB en ratas hipóxicas crónicas, medido como expresión de la tirosina hidroxilase, contenido, síntesis y liberación de CA. 9. la ingestión crónica de cafeína no ha inducido cambios en la actividad quimiosensora del CSN en ratas hipóxicas crónicas sin embargo las respuestas do CSN a una hipoxia intensa y moderada y a la hipercapnia están disminuidas. Este efecto inhibitorio que es debido a la ingestión crónica de cafeína es compensado al nivel de los quimiorreceptores centrales ya que los parámetros ventilatórios en condiciones básales y en respuesta a la hipoxia aguda no están modificados en ratas expuestas durante 15 días a una atmósfera hipóxica. Resumiendo se puede concluir que la adenosina en situaciones de hipoxia aguda así como en hipoxia crónica tiene un papel excitatório en la actividad quimiosensora del CB actuando directamente en los receptores A2A localizados pós-sinapticamente en el CSN, así como controlando la liberación de dopamina pré-sinaptica vía receptores A2B localizados en las células quimiorreceptoras. Las interacciones entre los receptores A2B y D2 observadas en las células quimiorreceptoras del CB podrían explicar el aumento del metabolismo de CA observado después de la ingestión crónica de cafeína en animales hipóxicos. Por fin, pero no menos importante se puede concluir que durante la climatización a la hipoxia la acción inhibitoria de la cafeína, medida como respuesta ventilatória, mediada por los quimiorreceptores periféricos es compensada por los efectos excitatórios de esta xantina al nivel de los quimiorreceptores centrales.

Evolution of IgG antibody response against Toxoplasma gondii tissue cyst in acute and chronic human infections

The recognition profile of the tissue cysts antigens by IgG antibodies was studied during acute and chronic human toxoplasmic infection. Thus the IgG response against Toxoplasma gondii was investigated by immunoblotting in two patients accidentally infected with the RH strain as well as in group of naturally infected patients at acute and chronic phase. There was an overall coincidence of molecular mass among antigens of tachyzoites and tissue cysts recognized by these sera, however, they appear not to be the same molecules. The response against tissue cysts starts early during acute infection, and the reactivity of antibodies is strong against a wide range of antigens. Six bands (between 82 and 151 kDa) were exclusively recognized by chronic phase sera but only the 132 kDa band was positive in more than 50% of the sera analysed. A mixture of these antigens could be used to discriminate between the two infection phases. The most important antigens recognized by the acute and the chronic phase sera were 4 clusters in the ranges 20-24 kDa, 34-39 kDa, 58-80 kDa and 105-130 kDa as well as two additional antigens of 18 and 29 kDa. Both accidentally infected patients and some of the naturally infected patients showed a weak specific response against tissue cyst antigens.

EPIDEMIOLOGIC SURVEYS OF HISTOPLASMIN AND PARACOCCIDIOIDIN SENSITIVITY IN BRAZIL

We report here the results obtained in epidemiologic surveys of histoplasmosis and paracoccidioidomycosis carried out in Brazil using the histoplasmin and paracoccidioidin delayed hypersensitivity skin tests. Most of these data have not been previously published in scientific journals and are now reported here in two tables respectively concerning histoplasmosis (88 surveys) and paracoccidioidomycosis (58 surveys). The guidelines to be followed in surveys of this nature are also commented upon.

Inoculation of Lacazia loboi into the subcutaneous tissue of the hamster cheek pouch

The subcutaneous tissue of the hamster cheek pouch, a site of immunologic privilege, has been used to investigate the potential infectivity of different types of parasites. It has been demonstrated that the implantation of fragments of lesions induced by the fungus Lacazia loboi, the etiologic agent of Jorge Lobo's disease, into the subcutaneous tissue of the hamster cheek pouch resulted in parasite multiplication and dissemination to satellite lymph nodes16. Here we describe the evolution of lesions induced by the inoculation of the isolated fungus into this immunologically privileged site. The morphology of the inflammatory response and fungal viability and proliferation were evaluated. Inoculation of the fungus into the cheek pouch induced histiocytic granulomas with rare lymphocytes. Although fungal cells were detected for a period of up to 180 days in these lesions, the fungi lost viability after the first day of inoculation. In contrast, when the parasite was inoculated into the footpad, non-organized histiocytic lesions were observed. Langhan's giant cells, lymphocytes and fungal particles were observed in these lesions. Fungal viability was observed up to 60 days after inoculation and non-viable parasites were present in the persistent lesions up to 180 days post-inoculation. These data indicate that the subcutaneous tissue of the hamster cheek pouch is not a suitable site for the proliferation of Lacazia loboi when the fungus isolated from human tissues is tested.

Proposal of abolition of the skin sensitivity test before equine rabies immune globulin application

An epizootic outbreak of rabies occurred in 1995 in Ribeirão Preto, SP, with 58 cases of animal rabies (54 dogs, 3 cats and 1 bat) confirmed by the Pasteur Institute of São Paulo, and one human death. The need to provide care to a large number of people for the application of equine rabies immune globulin (ERIG) prevented the execution of the skin sensitivity test (SST) and often also the execution of desensitization, procedures routinely used up to that time at the Emergency Unit of the University Hospital of the Faculty of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo (EU-UHFMRP-USP), a reference hospital for the application of heterologous sera. In view of our positive experience of several years with the abolition of SST and of the use of premedication before the application of antivenom sera, we used a similar schedule for ERIG application. Of the 1489 victims of animal bites, 1054 (71%) received ERIG; no patient was submitted to SST and all received intravenously anti-histamines (anti-H1 + anti-H2) and corticosteroids before the procedure. The patients were kept under observation for 60 to 180 minutes and no adverse reaction was observed. On the basis of these results, since December 1995 ERIG application has been decentralized in Ribeirão Preto and has become the responsibility of the Emergency Unit of the University Hospital and the Central Basic Health Unit, where the same routine is used. Since then, 4216 patients have received ERIG (1818 at the Basic Health Unit and 2398 at the EU-UHFMRP), with no problems. The ideal would be the routine use of human rabies immune globulin (HRIG) in public health programs, but this is problematic, because of their high cost. However, while this does not occur, the use of SST is no longer justified at the time of application of ERIG, in view of the clinical evidence of low predictive value and low sensitivity of SST involving the application of heterologous sera. It is very important to point out that a negative SST result may lead the health team to a feeling of false safety that no adverse reaction will occur, but this is not true for the anaphylactoid reactions. The decision to use premedication, which is based on knowledge about anaphylaxis and on the pharmacology of the medication used, is left to the judgment of health professionals, who should always be prepared for eventual untoward events.

In vitro evaluation of quinidine sensitivity in brazilian Plasmodium falciparum isolates: comparative analysis to quinine and chloroquine

Falciparum malaria represents a serious and an increasing world public health problem due to the acquired parasite's resistance to the most available drugs. In some endemic areas, quinidine, a diastereoisomer of the antimalarial quinine, has been employed for replacing the latter. In order to evaluate the use of quinidine as an alternative to the increasing loss of quinine effectiveness in Brazilian P. falciparum strains, as has been observed in the Amazon area, we have assayed quinidine, quinine and chloroquine. The in vitro microtechnique was employed. All isolates showed to be highly resistant to chloroquine. Resistance to quinine was not noted although high MIC (minimal inhibitory concentration) values have been observed. These data corroborate the decreasing sensitivity to quinine in strains from Brazil. Quinidine showed IC50 from 0.053 to 4.577 mumol/L of blood while IC50 from 0.053 to 8.132 mumol/L of blood was estimated for quinine. Moreover, clearance of the parasitemia was observed in concentrations lower than that used for quinidine in antiarrhythmic therapy, confirming our previous data. The results were similar to African isolate.

Immune response and tissue cytoprotection: two sides of the same coin in immunopathology

Dissertation presented to obtain the Ph.D degree in Biochemistry

Aracnoidite Adesiva Lombar

Spinal arachnoiditis, an inflammatory process involving all three meningeal layers as well as the nerve roots, is a cause of persistent symptoms in 6% to 16% of postoperative patients. Although spinal surgery is the most common antecedent associated with arachnoiditis, multiple causes have been reported, including infection, intrathecal steroids or anesthetic agents, trauma, subarachnoid hemorrhage and ionic myelographic contrast material--both oil soluble and water soluble. In the past, oil-based intrathecal contrast agents (Pantopaque) were associated with arachnoiditis especially when this material was introduced into the thecal sac and mixed with blood. Arachnoiditis is apparently rarely idiopathic. The pathogenesis of spinal arachnoiditis is similar to the repair process of serous membranes, such as the peritoneum, with a negligible inflammatory cellular exudate and a prominent fibrinous exudate. Chronic adhesive arachnoiditis of the lower spine is a myelographic diagnosis. The myelographic findings of arachnoiditis were divided into two types by Jorgensen et al. In type 1, "the empty thecal sac" appearance, there is homogeneous filling of the thecal sac with either absence of or defects involving nerve root sleeve filling. In type 2 arachnoiditis, there are localized or diffuse filling defects within the contrast column. MRI has demonstrated a sensitivity of 92% and a specificity of 100% in the diagnosis of arachnoiditis. The appearance of arachnoiditis on MRI can be assigned to three main groups. The MRI findings in group I are a conglomeration of adherent roots positioned centrally in the thecal sac. Patients in group II show roots peripherally adherent to the meninges--the so called empty sac. MRI findings in group III are a soft tissue mass within the subarachnoid space. It corresponds to the type 2 categorization defined by Jorgensen et al, where as the MRI imaging types I and II correspond to the myelographic type 1.

Utilidade do Doppler Tecidular na Predição de Eventos Arrítmicos em Adultos com Tetralogia de Fallot Corrigida

INTRODUCTION: Adults with repaired tetralogy of Fallot (TOF) may be at risk for progressive right ventricular (RV) dilatation and dysfunction, which is commonly associated with arrhythmic events. In frequently volume-overloaded patients with congenital heart disease, tissue Doppler imaging (TDI) is particularly useful for assessing RV function. However, it is not known whether RV TDI can predict outcome in this population. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate whether RV TDI parameters are associated with supraventricular arrhythmic events in adults with repaired TOF. METHODS: We studied 40 consecutive patients with repaired TOF (mean age 35 +/- 11 years, 62% male) referred for routine echocardiographic exam between 2007 and 2008. The following echocardiographic measurements were obtained: left ventricular (LV) ejection fraction, LV end-systolic volume, LV end-diastolic volume, RV fractional area change, RV end-systolic area, RV end-diastolic area, left and right atrial volumes, mitral E and A velocities, RV myocardial performance index (Tei index), tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE), myocardial isovolumic acceleration (IVA), pulmonary regurgitation color flow area, TDI basal lateral, septal and RV lateral peak diastolic and systolic annular velocities (E' 1, A' 1, S' 1, E' s, A' s, S' s, E' rv, A' rv, S' rv), strain, strain rate and tissue tracking of the same segments. QRS duration on resting ECG, total duration of Bruce treadmill exercise stress test and presence of exercise-induced arrhythmias were also analyzed. The patients were subsequently divided into two groups: Group 1--12 patients with previous documented supraventricular arrhythmias (atrial tachycardia, fibrillation or flutter) and Group 2 (control group)--28 patients with no previous arrhythmic events. Univariate and multivariate analysis was used to assess the statistical association between the studied parameters and arrhythmic events. RESULTS: Patients with previous events were older (41 +/- 14 vs. 31 +/- 6 years, p = 0.005), had wider QRS (173 +/- 20 vs. 140 +/- 32 ms, p = 0.01) and lower maximum heart rate on treadmill stress testing (69 +/- 35 vs. 92 +/- 9%, p = 0.03). All patients were in NYHA class I or II. Clinical characteristics including age at corrective surgery, previous palliative surgery and residual defects did not differ significantly between the two groups. Left and right cardiac chamber dimensions and ventricular and valvular function as evaluated by conventional Doppler parameters were also not significantly different. Right ventricular strain and strain rate were similar between the groups. However, right ventricular myocardial TDI systolic (Sa: 5.4+2 vs. 8.5 +/- 3, p = 0.004) and diastolic indices and velocities (Ea, Aa, septal E/Ea, and RV free wall tissue tracking) were significantly reduced in patients with arrhythmias compared to the control group. Multivariate linear regression analysis identified RV early diastolic velocity as the sole variable independently associated with arrhythmic history (RV Ea: 4.5 +/- 1 vs. 6.7 +/- 2 cm/s, p = 0.01). A cut-off for RV Ea of < 6.1 cm/s identified patients in the arrhythmic group with 86% sensitivity and 59% specificity (AUC = 0.8). CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that TDI may detect RV dysfunction in patients with apparently normal function as assessed by conventional echocardiographic parameters. Reduction in RV early diastolic velocity appears to be an early abnormality and is associated with occurrence of arrhythmic events. TDI may be useful in risk stratification of patients with repaired tetralogy of Fallot.