Construcción modular ligera energéticamente eficiente

Esta tesis trata sobre la construcción modular ligera, dentro del contexto de la eficiencia energética y de cara a los conceptos de nZEB (near Zero Energy Building) y NZEB (Net Zero Energy Building) que se manejan en el ámbito europeo y específicamente dentro del marco regulador de la Directiva 2010/31 UE. En el contexto de la Unión Europea, el sector de la edificación representa el 40% del total del consumo energético del continente. Asumiendo la necesidad de reducir este consumo se han planteado, desde los organismos de dirección europeos, unos objetivos (objetivos 20-20-20) para hacer más eficiente el parque edificatorio. Estos objetivos, que son vinculantes en términos de legislación, comprometen a todos los estados miembros a conseguir la meta de reducción de consumo y emisiones de GEI (Gases de Efecto Invernadero) antes del año 2020. Estos conceptos de construcción modular ligera (CML) y eficiencia energética no suelen estar asociados por el hecho de que este tipo de construcción no suele estar destinada a un uso intensivo y no cuenta con unos cerramientos con niveles de aislamiento de acuerdo a las normativas locales o códigos de edificación de cada país. El objetivo de nZEB o NZEB, e incluso Energy Plus, según sea el caso, necesariamente (y así queda establecido en las normativas), dependerá no sólo de la mejora de los niveles de aislamiento de los edificios, sino también de la implementación de sistemas de generación renovables, independientemente del tipo de sistema constructivo con el que se trabaje e incluso de la tipología edificatoria. Si bien es cierto que los niveles de industrialización de la sociedad tecnológica actual han alcanzado varias de las fases del proceso constructivo - sobre todo en cuanto a elementos compositivos de los edificios- también lo es el hecho de que las cotas de desarrollo conseguidas en el ámbito de la construcción no llegan al nivel de evolución que se puede apreciar en otros campos de las ingenierías como la aeronáutica o la industria del automóvil. Aunque desde finales del siglo pasado existen modelos y proyectos testimoniales de construcción industrializada ligera (CIL) e incluso ya a principios del siglo XX, ejemplos de construcción modular ligera (CML), como la Casa Voisin, la industrialización de la construcción de edificios no ha sido una constante progresiva con un nivel de comercialización equiparable al de la construcción masiva y pesada. Los términos construcción industrializada, construcción prefabricada, construcción modular y construcción ligera, no siempre hacen referencia a lo mismo y no siempre son sinónimos entre sí. Un edificio puede ser prefabricado y no ser modular ni ligero y tal es el caso, por poner un ejemplo, de la construcción con paneles de hormigón prefabricado. Lo que sí es una constante es que en el caso de la construcción modular ligera, la prefabricación y la industrialización, casi siempre vienen implícitas en muchos ejemplos históricos y actuales. Con relación al concepto de eficiencia energética (nZEB o incluso NZEB), el mismo no suele estar ligado a la construcción modular ligera y/o ligera industrializada; más bien se le ve unido a la idea de cerramientos masivos con gran inercia térmica propios de estándares de diseño como el Passivhaus; y aunque comúnmente a la construcción ligera se le asocian otros conceptos que le restan valor (corta vida útil; función y formas limitadas, fuera de todo orden estético; limitación en los niveles de confort, etc.), los avances que se van alcanzando en materia de tecnologías para el aprovechamiento de la energía y sistemas de generación renovables, pueden conseguir revertir estas ideas y unificar el criterio de eficiencia + construcción modular ligera. Prototipos y proyectos académicos– como el concurso Solar Decathlon que se celebra desde el año 2002 promovido por el DOE (Departamento de Energía de los Estados Unidos), y que cuenta con ediciones europeas como las de los años 2010 y 2012, replantean la idea de la construcción industrializada, modular y ligera dentro del contexto de la eficiencia energética, con prototipos de viviendas de ± 60m2, propuestos por las universidades concursantes, y cuyo objetivo es alcanzar y/o desarrollar el concepto de NZEB (Net Zero Energy Building) o edificio de energía cero. Esta opción constructiva no sólo representa durabilidad, seguridad y estética, sino también, rapidez en la fabricación y montaje, además de altas prestaciones energéticas como se ha podido demostrar en las sucesivas ediciones del Solar Decathlon. Este tipo de iniciativas de desarrollo de tecnologías constructivas, no sólo apuntan a la eficiencia energética sino al concepto global de energía neta, Energía plus o cero emisiones de CO2. El nivel de emisiones por la fabricación y puesta en obra de los materiales de construcción depende, en muchos casos, no solo de la propia naturaleza del material, sino también de la cantidad de recursos utilizados para producir una unidad de medida determinada (kg, m3, m2, ml, etc). En este sentido podría utilizarse, en muchos casos, el argumento válido de que a menos peso, y a menos tamaño, menos emisiones globales de gases de efecto invernadero y menos contaminación. Para el trabajo de investigación de esta tesis se han tomado como referencias válidas para estudio, prototipos tanto de CML (Modular 3D) como de CIL (panelizado y elementos 2D), dado que para los fines de análisis de las prestaciones energéticas de los materiales de cerramiento, ambos sistemas son equiparables. Para poder llegar a la conclusión fundamental de este trabajo de tesis doctoral - que consiste en demostrar la viabilidad tecnológica/ industrial que supone la combinación de la eficiencia energética y la construcción modular ligera - se parte del estudio del estado de la técnica ( desde la selección de los materiales y los posibles procesos de industrialización en fábrica, hasta su puesta en obra, funcionamiento y uso, bajo los conceptos de consumo cero, cero emisiones de carbono y plus energético). Además -y con un estado de la técnica que identifica la situación actual- se llevan a cabo pruebas y ensayos con un prototipo a escala natural y células de ensayo, para comprobar el comportamiento de los elementos compositivos de los mismos, frente a unas condicionantes climáticas determinadas. Este tipo de resultados se contrastan con los obtenidos mediante simulaciones informáticas basadas en los mismos parámetros y realizadas en su mayoría mediante métodos simplificados de cálculos, validados por los organismos competentes en materia de eficiencia energética en la edificación en España y de acuerdo a la normativa vigente. ABSTRACT This thesis discusses lightweight modular construction within the context of energy efficiency in nZEB (near Zero Energy Building) and NZEB (Net Zero Energy Building) both used in Europe and, specifically, within the limits of the regulatory framework of the EU Directive 2010/31. In the European Union the building sector represents 40% of the total energy consumption of the continent. Due to the need to reduce this consumption, European decision-making institutions have proposed aims (20-20-20 aims) to render building equipment more efficient. These aims are bound by law and oblige all member States to endeavour to reduce consumption and GEI emissions before the year 2020. Lightweight modular construction concepts and energy efficiency are not generally associated because this type of building is not normally meant for intensive use and does not have closures with insulation levels which fit the local regulations or building codes of each country. The objective of nZEB or NZEB and even Energy Plus, depending on each case, will necessarily be associated (as established in the guidelines) not only with the improvement of insulation levels in buildings, but also with the implementation of renewable systems of generation, independent of the type of building system used and of the building typology. Although it is true that the levels of industrialisation in the technological society today have reached several of the building process phases - particularly in the composite elements of buildings - it is also true that the quotas of development achieved in the area of construction have not reached the evolutionary levelfound in other fields of engineering, such as aeronautics or the automobile industry. Although there have been models and testimonial projects of lightweight industrialised building since the end of last century, even going back as far as the beginning of the XX century with examples of lightweight modular construction such as the Voisin House, industrialisation in the building industry has not been constant nor is its comercialisation comparable to massive and heavy construction. The terms industrialised building, prefabricated building, modular building and lightweight building, do not always refer to the same thing and they are not always synonymous. A building can be prefabricated yet not be modular or lightweight. To give an example, this is the case of building with prefabricated concrete panels. What is constant is that, in the case of lightweight modular construction, prefabrication and industrialisation are almost always implicit in many historical and contemporary examples. Energy efficiency (nZEB or even NZEB) is not normally linked to lightweight modular construction and/or industrialised lightweight; rather, it is united to the idea of massive closureswith high thermal inertia typical of design standards such as the Passive House; and although other concepts that subtract value from it are generally associated with lightweight building (short useful life, limited forms and function, inappropriate toany aesthetic pattern; limitation in comfort levels, etc.), the advances being achieved in technology for benefitting from energy and renewable systems of generation may well reverse these ideas and unify the criteria of efficiency + lightweight modular construction. Academic prototypes and projects - such as the Solar Decathlon competition organised by the US Department of Energy and celebrated since 2002, with its corresponding European events such as those held in 2010 and 2012, place a different slant on the idea of industrialised, modular and lightweight building within the context of energy efficiency, with prototypes of homes measuring approximately 60m2, proposed by university competitors, whose aim is to reach and/or develop the NZEB concept, or the zero energy building. This building option does not only signify durability, security and aesthetics, but also fast manufacture and assembly. It also has high energy benefits, as has been demonstrated in successive events of the Solar Decathlon. This type of initiative for the development of building technologies, does not only aim at energy efficiency, but also at the global concept of net energy, Energy Plus and zero CO2 emissions. The level of emissions in the manufacture and introduction of building materials in many cases depends not only on the inherent nature of the material, but also on the quantity of resources used to produce a specific unit of measurement (kg, m3, m2, ml, etc.). Thus in many cases itcould be validly arguedthat with less weight and smaller size, there will be fewer global emissions of greenhouse effect gases and less contamination. For the research carried out in this thesis prototypes such as the CML (3D Module) and CIL (panelled and elements) have been used as valid study references, becauseboth systems are comparablefor the purpose of analysing the energy benefits of closure materials. So as to reach a basic conclusion in this doctoral thesis - that sets out to demonstrate the technological/industrial viability of the combination of energy efficiency and lightweight modular construction - the departure point is the study of the state of the technique (from the selection of materials and the possible processes of industrialisation in manufacture, to their use on site, functioning and use, respecting the concepts of zero consumption, zero emissions of carbon and Energy Plus). Moreover, with the state of the technique identifying the current situation, tests and practices have been carried out with a natural scale prototype and test cells so as to verify the behaviour of the composite elements of these in certain climatic conditions. These types of result are contrasted with those obtained through computer simulation based on the same parameters and done, principally, using simplified methods of calculation, validated by institutions competent in energy efficiency in Spanish building and in line with the rules in force.

Simulation of thermal performance of glazing in architecture using scale models = Simulación del comportamiento térmico de los acristalamientos en la arquitectura mediante modelos a escala

El propósito de esta tesis es estudiar la aproximación a los fenómenos de transporte térmico en edificación acristalada a través de sus réplicas a escala. La tarea central de esta tesis es, por lo tanto, la comparación del comportamiento térmico de modelos a escala con el correspondiente comportamiento térmico del prototipo a escala real. Los datos principales de comparación entre modelo y prototipo serán las temperaturas. En el primer capítulo del Estado del Arte de esta tesis se hará un recorrido histórico por los usos de los modelos a escala desde la antigüedad hasta nuestro días. Dentro de éste, en el Estado de la Técnica, se expondrán los beneficios que tiene su empleo y las dificultades que conllevan. A continuación, en el Estado de la Investigación de los modelos a escala, se analizarán artículos científicos y tesis. Precisamente, nos centraremos en aquellos modelos a escala que son funcionales. Los modelos a escala funcionales son modelos a escala que replican, además, una o algunas de las funciones de sus prototipos. Los modelos a escala pueden estar distorsionados o no. Los modelos a escala distorsionados son aquellos con cambios intencionados en las dimensiones o en las características constructivas para la obtención de una respuesta específica por ejemplo, replicar el comportamiento térmico. Los modelos a escala sin distorsión, o no distorsionados, son aquellos que mantienen, en la medida de lo posible, las proporciones dimensionales y características constructivas de sus prototipos de referencia. Estos modelos a escala funcionales y no distorsionados son especialmente útiles para los arquitectos ya que permiten a la vez ser empleados como elementos funcionales de análisis y como elementos de toma de decisiones en el diseño constructivo. A pesar de su versatilidad, en general, se observará que se han utilizado muy poco estos modelos a escala funcionales sin distorsión para el estudio del comportamiento térmico de la edificación. Posteriormente, se expondrán las teorías para el análisis de los datos térmicos recogidos de los modelos a escala y su aplicabilidad a los correspondientes prototipos a escala real. Se explicarán los experimentos llevados a cabo, tanto en laboratorio como a intemperie. Se han realizado experimentos con modelos sencillos cúbicos a diferentes escalas y sometidos a las mismas condiciones ambientales. De estos modelos sencillos hemos dado el salto a un modelo reducido de una edificación acristalada relativamente sencilla. Los experimentos consisten en ensayos simultáneos a intemperie del prototipo a escala real y su modelo reducido del Taller de Prototipos de la Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de Madrid (ETSAM). Para el análisis de los datos experimentales hemos aplicado las teorías conocidas, tanto comparaciones directas como el empleo del análisis dimensional. Finalmente, las simulaciones nos permiten comparaciones flexibles con los datos experimentales, por ese motivo, hemos utilizado tanto programas comerciales como un algoritmo de simulación desarrollado ad hoc para esta investigación. Finalmente, exponemos la discusión y las conclusiones de esta investigación. Abstract The purpose of this thesis is to study the approximation to phenomena of heat transfer in glazed buildings through their scale replicas. The central task of this thesis is, therefore, the comparison of the thermal performance of scale models without distortion with the corresponding thermal performance of their full-scale prototypes. Indoor air temperatures of the scale model and the corresponding prototype are the data to be compared. In the first chapter on the State of the Art, it will be shown a broad vision, consisting of a historic review of uses of scale models, from antiquity to our days. In the section State of the Technique, the benefits and difficulties associated with their implementation are presented. Additionally, in the section State of the Research, current scientific papers and theses on scale models are reviewed. Specifically, we focus on functional scale models. Functional scale models are scale models that replicate, additionally, one or some of the functions of their corresponding prototypes. Scale models can be distorted or not. Scale models with distortion are considered scale models with intentional changes, on one hand, in dimensions scaled unevenly and, on the other hand, in constructive characteristics or materials, in order to get a specific performance for instance, a specific thermal performance. Consequently, scale models without distortion, or undistorted scale models scaled evenly, are those replicating, to the extent possible, without distortion, the dimensional proportions and constructive configurations of their prototypes of reference. These undistorted and functional scale models are especially useful for architects because they can be used, simultaneously, as functional elements of analysis and as decision-making elements during the design. Although they are versatile, in general, it is remarkable that these types of models are used very little for the study of the thermal performance of buildings. Subsequently, the theories related to the analysis of the experimental thermal data collected from the scale models and their applicability to the corresponding full-scale prototypes, will be explained. Thereafter, the experiments in laboratory and at outdoor conditions are detailed. Firstly, experiments carried out with simple cube models at different scales are explained. The prototype larger in size and the corresponding undistorted scale model have been subjected to same environmental conditions in every experimental test. Secondly, a step forward is taken carrying out some simultaneous experimental tests of an undistorted scale model, replica of a relatively simple lightweight and glazed building construction. This experiment consists of monitoring the undistorted scale model of the prototype workshop located in the School of Architecture (ETSAM) of the Technical University of Madrid (UPM). For the analysis of experimental data, known related theories and resources are applied, such as, direct comparisons, statistical analyses, Dimensional Analysis and last, but not least important, simulations. Simulations allow us, specifically, flexible comparisons with experimental data. Here, apart the use of the simulation software EnergyPlus, a simulation algorithm is developed ad hoc for this research. Finally, the discussion and conclusions of this research are exposed.

Artefactos energéticos : de Fuller a Piñero (1961-1972) = Energetic artefacts : from Fuller to Piñero (1961-1972)

La obra de Emilio Pérez Piñero que se desarrolla entre los años 1961 y 1972 año en el que muere en un accidente de tráfico volviendo de Figueras, se centra principalmente en artefactos desplegables y desmontables, ejecutando prototipos que en el presente trabajo se han dividido en dos grupos; la cúpula reticular y la infraestructura. No pudo por tanto acudir al Congreso de 1972 de la UIA a recoger el premio Auguste Perret a la innovación tecnológica, que en años anteriores habían recibido Félix Candela, Jean Prouvé, Hans Scharoun o Frei Otto, y que en aquella ocasión tuvo que recoger su viuda. Parámetros como el de la movilidad, indeterminación, intercambiabilidad, obsolescencia y otros que se analizan en el presente trabajo, aparecen a lo largo de toda su obra ya que muchos de sus artefactos están ubicados en no-lugares y tienen un carácter itinerante y por tanto se hace indispensable su rápido montaje y desmontaje, que unas veces se resuelve mediante la desmontabilidad y otras con la plegabilidad de éstos. Aunque pueda parecer Piñero una figura autárquica, lo cierto es que durante la década donde concentra su trabajo se produce una explosión en torno a al arquetipo que será denominado de forma genérica `artefacto´, ligado conceptualmente a los parámetros que aquí se definen. Entendemos artefacto como objeto material realizado por una o varias personas para cumplir una función, es sinónimo de máquina y aparato y deriva de las palabras latinas ars o artis (técnica) y facto (hecho), para designar a los objetos cuya fabricación requiere alguna destreza. El término latino `ars´ engloba a las técnicas y a las artes, lo que no ocurre con el término castellano arte que deriva de él. Los movimientos utópicos que comparte la década con Piñero, utilizan el arquetipo infraestructural, ligero y high tech, para a través de una arquitectura más ligada a la ciencia ficción, realizar una crítica al Movimiento Moderno institucionalizado, todos ellos comparten cierta obsesión por la movilidad, ligada ésta a la idea de espacio flexible, dinámico, nómada. Este concepto de neo-nomadismo, que representa un habitar dinámico, aglutina las nuevas formas de vivir donde la movilidad social y geográfica son habituales. El nomadismo, por otra parte se entiende como sinónimo de democracia y libertad. La arquitectura pasa de ser pesada, estática, permanente a ser un elemento dinámico en continuo movimiento. A veces con connotaciones biológicas se asimilan los artefactos a organismos vivos y les confieren dichas propiedades de crecimiento y autonomía energética, acumulándose en torno a megaestructuras, donde quedan `enchufados´. En este intento de dotar movilidad a lo inmueble, se buscan estructuras vivas y modificables que crecen en una asimilación de las leyes naturales utilizando los parámetros de metamorfosis, simbiosis y cambio. Estos movimientos de vanguardia tienen también ciertas connotaciones políticas y sociales basadas en la libertad y la movilidad y reniegan del consumismo institucionalizado, de la arquitectura como instrumento de consumo, como objeto de usar en la cultura de masas. El carácter político de la autogestión, de la customización como parámetro proyectual, de la autosuficiencia energética, que anticipa la llegada de la crisis energética del año 1973. Objeto de este trabajo será relacionar los conceptos que aparecen fuertemente en el entorno de la década de los años sesenta del siglo XX, en el trabajo de Emilio Pérez Piñero. Parámetros encontrados como conceptos en los grupos de vanguardia y utopía a su vez fuertemente influenciados por las figuras del ingeniero Richard Buckminster Fuller y del arquitecto Konrad Wachsmann. Se analizará que posible influencia tiene la obra de Fuller, principalmente el prototipo denominado cúpula reticular, en la obra de Pérez Piñero y sus coetáneos analizando sus pensamientos teóricos en torno a parámetros como la energía, principalmente en las teorías relativas a Synergetics. El término inventado por Richard B. Fuller es una contracción de otro más largo que en inglés agrupa tres palabras; synergetic-energetic geometry. La definición de sinergia es la cooperación, es decir es el resultado de la acción conjunta de dos o más causas, pero con un efecto superior a la suma de estas causas. El segundo término, energetics geometry, que traducido sería geometría energética hace referencia en primer lugar a la geometría; ya que desarrolla el sistema de referencia que utiliza la naturaleza para construir sus sistemas y en segundo lugar a la energía; ya que además debe ser el sistema que establezca las relaciones más económicas utilizando el mínimo de energía. Por otro lado se analiza la repercusión del prototipo denominado Infraestructura, término acuñado por Yona Friedman y basado estructuralmente y conceptualmente en los desarrollos sobre grandes estructuras de Konrad Wachsmann. El arquitecto alemán divulga su conocimiento en seminarios impartidos por todo el mundo como el que imparte en Tokio y se denomina Wachsmann´s Seminar donde participan algunos de los componentes del grupo Metabolista que sorprenderán al mundo con sus realizaciones en la exposición de Osaka de 1970. El intervalo temporal entre 1961 hasta 1972 hace referencia a la horquilla donde Pérez Piñero realiza su obra arquitectónica, que comienza en 1961 cuando gana el concurso convocado en Londres por la UIA (Unión Internacional de Arquitectos) con el proyecto conocido como Teatro Ambulante, hasta 1972 que es cuando fallece volviendo de Figueras donde está realizando dos encargos de Salvador Dalí; la cubrición del escenario del futuro Teatro-Museo Salvador Dalí y la Vidriera Hipercúbica que debía cerrar la boca de tal escenario. Bajo el título de `Artefactos energéticos. De Fuller a Piñero (1961-1972)´, se presenta esta Tesis doctoral, que tiene la intención de vincular la obra de Emilio Pérez Piñero con la de las neo vanguardias producidas por una serie de arquitectos que operan en el ámbito internacional. Estas vinculaciones se producen de una forma general, donde a través de una serie de estrategias según la metodología que posteriormente se describe se buscan relaciones de la obra del autor español con algunos de los movimientos más significativos que aparecen en dicha década y de manera específica estableciendo relaciones con las obras y pensamientos de los autores que pertenecen a estos movimientos y donde estas relaciones se hacen más evidentes. El objeto del presente trabajo es analizar y explicar la obra del arquitecto Emilio Pérez Piñero, que espacialmente se localiza en el territorio español, desde el punto de vista de estos movimientos para posteriormente poder determinar si existen puntos en común y si el arquitecto español no solo comparte la década temporalmente sino también conceptualmente y por tanto utiliza el ideario que utilizan sus coetáneos que forman parte de las neovanguardias de los años sesenta de siglo XX. ABSTRACT ABSTRACT The Work of Emilio Perez Piñero was developed between the years 1961 and 1972 when he died in a car accident coming back from Figueres, where he was building a geodesic dome to close the building that enclose the Dali’s museum. All his Work is mainly centered in artifact that could be collapsible and removable, taking the two prototypes that are described in this work as a recurrent element in all his creation. These are the reticular dome and the infrastructure that are very influenced by the work from Richard B. Fuller and Konrad Wachsmann. Emilio Pérez Piñero could not receive the Auguste Perret Prize in 1972 awarded by the UIA that years before have received architects as Felix Candela, Jean Prouvé, Hans Scharoun or Frei Otto, and this time Pérez Piñero´s wife will accept it because of his death. Parameters like mobility, changeability, expendability, indetermination and others appear currently in his Work. All the inventions that Piñero had been patented and all of the artifacts that he created are usually located in no-places, because they do have a shifting identity. This kind of building has to be quickly set on site, and this problem has to be solved in term of foldability or demounting. In the decade where his work focuses, an explosion has occurred around this archetype to be generally called artifact that is usually linked to mobility. We understand artifact as a material object made by one or more people to work in a particular way. It is sometimes equated with the terms machinery and apparatus and it is derived from the Latin word `ars´ or `artis´, what means techniques and `facto´ (fact). And we use this term to refer to objects whose manufacture requires the same skill, in fact the Latin word `ars´ covers the techniques and arts, which does not occur with the Castillan term `arte´ that derives from it and means only art. The term neo-nomadic is a relatively new name used for a dynamic life, commonly referred to new forms of life where social and geographical mobility are common. On the other hand nomadic could be understood as a synonymous for democracy and freedom. The architecture is not going to be hard and static anymore but a dynamic element in the move. The Neo-avant-garde movement that shares the decade with Piñero uses this infrastructural archetype, which is light and high-tech, to criticize the institutionalized Modern Movement through architecture linked to science fiction. They all share an obsession with mobility, a concept that is connected to the terms `dynamic´, `nomadic´, `flexibile´, etc. Sometimes, with biological connotations, the utopian assimilate the artifacts to living organisms and give them these properties of growth and energy autonomy, and they apparently grow around megastructures where they are plugged. In this attempt to provide mobility to the inertness, living structures and possibility of change are sought in order to make them grow like a living organism and to assimilate the natural laws of growth. According to a definition from architecture provided by Fernández- Galiano who calls it `exosomatic artifact´, he understand architecture as artifact of the human environment that regulates natural energy flows and channels the energy stored in fuels for the benefit of living beings that inhabit. It is also true that during the sixties a new environmental awareness in public opinion is formed and that is due to the exploitation and disproportionate use of energy resources, acceleration of technological processes and mass consumption. Consequently a new concept is born: energy autonomy, it is very close to rational use of natural energy. Such a concept will be culturally assimilated with the requirement of independence not only in the management but also in the building construction until we arrive at energy autonomy. The individuals become energy consumer, which in turn can enter the energy produced in the system to `life in an eco-mode way´. The objectives of this research are analyzing all of these parameters and concepts that are coming into view in the surrounding of the decade and relate them with the Work of Pérez Piñero. Terms strongly present in the avant-garde movements around the decade, a young architect’s generation strongly influenced by Richard B. Fuller and Konrad Wachsmann. However, it will be analyzed how important the influence of Buckminster Fuller's Work was and his theoretical text about energy on the Work of Pérez Piñero and his fellows of the decade. The term Synergetic was invented by Fuller and came from the words synergy and energetic geometry. Synergy is the cooperation or interaction of two or more agents to produce a greater effect than the sum of their separate effects. Energetic geometry is related to the geometries that the Nature is using to build their construction but always using low energy consumption. On the other hand, the influences from Wachsmann around the prototype called Infrastructure have been analyzed. The German architect has developed knowledge around huge structures that he has spread all around the world through seminars that he has been conducted. One of these was the Wachsmann´s seminar in Tokyo, where same of the members of the Metabolist group were taking part of. Later these young architects will surprise the world with his artifacts at the World Exposition in Osaka in 1970. Between 1961 and 1972 Pérez Piñero produced his architectural work. It began in 1961 when he received the first prize with his project Mobile Theatre in the competition organized by the UIA in London. In 1972 the Auguste Perret Prize was granted by the UIA too. He could not accept it because he died before in a car accident when he was coming from Figueres, when he was designing two projects for Dali. With the title `Energetic Artifacts. From Fuller to Piñero (1961- 1972)´, this thesis relates the Work of Emilio Pérez Piñero with the neo avant-garde made by a young architects’ generation who is sharing the time with him. Several strategies have been used to formed relationships between them. They are described in the present work to set up a method that allows us to relate the work and ideas of the architects of the neo avant-garde with the ones from Piñero. This work is intended to analyze and explained the work of Pérez Piñero from the point of view of the international architects’ generation who is operating at the same time and finally to determinate if Piñero is not sharing the time with them but the concepts, ideas and architectural parameters.

Diseño de filtros helicoidales de altas prestaciones

El objetivo de este proyecto es el estudio detallado y fabricación de los filtros de cavidades con resonadores helicoidales. Este proyecto está motivado por el hecho de que es una tecnología cada vez más presente en el mercado y su uso resulta muy ´útil en aplicaciones donde se requiere que los componentes sean de tamaño reducido. Esto se debe a que las cavidades helicoidales son de las que presentan menor tamaño para una frecuencia dada. La estructura del proyecto se va a dividir en tres grandes bloques. El primero es el estudio teórico de esta tecnología. En la introducción se verán los principales usos de estos dispositivos, dando ejemplos comerciales, para luego poder compararlos con el prototipo que se ha construido. A continuación, en los primeros capítulos, se detallará la geometría de los resonadores, las ecuaciones que deben aplicarse para calcular las dimensiones y los elementos de diseño. Se comentarán algunas modificaciones opcionales que se pueden aplicar al filtro en el caso de que se requieran especificaciones especiales para la aplicación para la que esté destinado el dispositivo. En segundo lugar se procederá a diseñar modelos de filtros helicoidales para distintas bandas de frecuencia, con el programa de diseño CST Microwave Studio. Estos serán ajustados y parametrizados con el fin de obtener unos requerimientos que serán fijados previamente. Y por ´ultimo se mostrará como ha sido el proceso de prototipado del filtro de tres cavidades para la banda de FM que se ha llevado a cabo y estarán plasmadas las medidas que se han realizado para determinar las características que tiene el prototipo. Este proyecto está planteado como un manual para que el interesado en la fabricación de este tipo de filtros pueda afrontar el diseño desde el inicio y ser capaz de construir un prototipo que cumpla con las características que sean requeridas. ABSTRACT. The main purpose of this project is the detailed study of helical resonator filters and their manufacturing. This technology is increasingly present in the market, and its use is very convenient in applications where it is required for the components to be of reduced size. This is due to helical resonators being smaller than conventional cavity filters for a given frequency. The projects structure will be divided into three sections. First, the theoretical study of this technology will be presented. In the introduction, the main uses of these devices will be shown and commercial examples will be given, which can then be compared with the built prototype. Afterwards, in the first chapters, the geometry of the resonators, the required equations to calculate their dimensions and the design elements will be detailed. Some optional modifications that can be applied to the filter in the case of special specifications will be discussed. Second, some models of helical filters will be designed for different frequency bands, using the design software CST Microwave Studio. These will be adjusted and parameterized in order to meet requirements that will be set previously. Finally, the development of the prototyping process of a three cavities filter for the FM band will be shown, and the measurements that were made to determine the prototypes features will be reflected. This project is designed as a handbook; the individual concerned in the manufacture of these filters should be able to follow the design process from the start and build a prototype that has the required characteristics.

Jacques Tati : vivienda experimental y espacio de trabajo a mediados del siglo XX

La obra fílmica del director francés Jacques Tati podría considerarse como el perfecto reflejo del paradigma edificatorio de mediados del siglo XX en plena posguerra europea, una época ávida de transformaciones de las que el cine supo hacerse eco. Particularmente, el cine de Tati refleja las preocupaciones del ciudadano europeo de posguerra sobre las consecuencias de las masivas construcciones erigidas en sus devastados núcleos urbanos y la puesta en práctica de la ciudad funcional propuesta por la Carta de Atenas (1931). Pero, además, el análisis del cine de Jacques Tati permite un acercamiento a la modernidad desde diversos puntos de vista como la movilidad, el diseño urbano, las nuevas construcciones, los espacios de trabajo en los nuevos distritos terciarios, la vivienda -tradicional, moderna y experimental- o el diseño mobiliario en la posguerra. A través de su alter ego -Monsieur Hulot- Tati interacciona curioso con las nuevas construcciones geométricas de paños neutros y cuestiona su ruptura con la tradición edificatoria francesa, enfatizando la oposición entre el pasado nostálgico y la modernidad de las décadas de los 50 y 60, salpicadas por el consumismo feroz del recién estrenado estado de bienestar. La confrontación funcional, volumétrica, estética e incluso cromática entre ambos mundos construidos –el tradicional y el moderno- invita al espectador a un ejercicio de reflexión y crítica sobre la arquitectura moderna de este período en Europa. En particular, la mirada cinematográfica de Tati se centra en dos conceptos fundamentales. Por una parte, su atención se dirige a la famosa casa mecanicista Le Corbuseriana materializada en la ultra-moderna casa Arpel (Mon Oncle, 1958) y proyectada en la misma época en la que se desarrollaban importantes prototipos de vivienda experimental como la Casa de Futuro de Alison y Peter Smithson o las viviendas de Jean Prouvé. Debe ponerse de manifiesto que la crítica de Jacques Tati no se centraba en la arquitectura moderna en sí misma sino en el empleo erróneo que los usuarios pudieran hacer de ella. Por otro lado, Tati centra su atención en el prisma miesiano a través de los bloques de oficinas que conforman la ciudad de Tativille en Playtime (1967). Se trataba de una gran ciudad moderna construida explícitamente para el rodaje de la película y basada en los casi idénticos tejidos urbanos residenciales y terciarios ya en funcionamiento en las principales capitales europeas y norteamericanas en aquellos años. Tativille funcionaría como una ciudad autónoma disponiendo de diversas instalaciones y con el objetivo de integrarse y consolidarse en la trama urbana parisina. Lamentablemente, su destino al final del rodaje fue bien distinto. En definitiva, el análisis de la producción fílmica de Jacques Tati permite un acercamiento a la arquitectura y al urbanismo modernos de posguerra y al contexto socio-económico que favoreció su crecimiento y expansión. Por ello, su obra constituye una herramienta visual muy útil que aún hoy es consultada y mostrada por su claridad y humor y que invita a los ciudadanos –telespectadores- a participar en un ejercicio crítico arquitectónico hasta entonces reservado a los arquitectos. ABSTRACT The film work of French director Jacques Tati could be considered as the perfect reflection of the mid-20th century European post-war building paradigm, a period of time plenty of transformations perfectly echoed by cinema. In particular, Tati’s film work reflects the European post-war citizen’s concerns about the consequences of massive constructions built in their desvastated urban centres, as well as the development of functional cities proposed by the Athens Charter (1931). But, on top of that, an analysis of Jacques Tati’s cinematography allows for an approach to modernity from different perspectives, such as mobility, urban design, new buildings, working spaces in the new tertiary districts, housing -traditional, modern, and experimental-, or furniture design during the post-war period. Embodied by his alter-ego –Monsieur Hulot,- Tati curiously interacts with the new geometric constructions of neutral facades and questions the break with the French building tradition, highlighting the opposition between the nostalgic past and modernity of the 50s and 60s, affected by the fierce consumerism of the new welfare state. The functional, volumetric, aesthetic and even chromatic confrontation between both built worlds –traditional vs modern- invites the viewer to an exercise of meditation and criticism on the European modern architecture of that period. Tati’s film look is particularly focused on two basic concepts: on the one hand, his attention addresses Le Corbusier’s famous mechanistic house which is materialized in the ultra-modern Arpel house (Mon Oncle, 1958) and designed, in turn, when the development of other important experimental dwelling prototypes like Alison and Peter Smithson’s House of the Future or Jean Prouvé´s houses was taking place. It must be highlighted that Jacques Tati’s criticism was not addressed to modern architecture itself but to the wrong use that citizens could make of it. On the other hand, Tati focuses on the Miesian prism through the office buildings that shape the city of Tativille in Playtime (1967). It was a big, modern city built specifically for the film shooting, and based on the almost identical residential and tertiary urban fabrics already active in the main European and American capitals those years. Tativille would work as an autonomous city, having several facilities at its disposal and with the goal of getting integrated and consolidated into the Parisian urban weave. However, its final use was, unfortunately, quite different. In conclusion, an analysis of Jacques Tati’s film production allows for an approach to modern post-war architecture and urbanism, as well as to the socio-economic context that favoured its growth and expansion. As a result of this, Jacques Tati’s film production constitutes a suitable visual tool which, even nowadays, is consulted and shown due to its clarity and humour, and at the same time invites citizens –viewers- to participate in an architectural criticism exercise that, so far, had been reserved to architects.

Single Point Gradiometer for Planetary Applications

We have designed and fabricated a microelectromechanical device, based on the alternating field gradient concept, to measure surface magnetic field gradient on planets. Its sensitivity is 4 10-4 T/m, which is appropriate for magnetite outcrops and areas with rocks formed at different stages recording geomagnetic field reversals. We present the results obtained with three different prototypes.

Invariance between subjects of brain wave representations of language

In three experiments, electric brain waves of 19 subjects were recorded under several different experimental conditions for two purposes. One was to test how well we could recognize which sentence, from a set of 24 or 48 sentences, was being processed in the cortex. The other was to study the invariance of brain waves between subjects. As in our earlier work, the analysis consisted of averaging over trials to create prototypes and test samples, to both of which Fourier transforms were applied, followed by filtering and an inverse transformation to the time domain. A least-squares criterion of fit between prototypes and test samples was used for classification. In all three experiments, averaging over subjects improved the recognition rates. The most significant finding was the following. When brain waves were averaged separately for two nonoverlapping groups of subjects, one for prototypes and the other for test samples, we were able to recognize correctly 90% of the brain waves generated by 48 different sentences about European geography.

Invariance of brain-wave representations of simple visual images and their names

In two experiments, electric brain waves of 14 subjects were recorded under several different conditions to study the invariance of brain-wave representations of simple patches of colors and simple visual shapes and their names, the words blue, circle, etc. As in our earlier work, the analysis consisted of averaging over trials to create prototypes and test samples, to both of which Fourier transforms were applied, followed by filtering and an inverse transformation to the time domain. A least-squares criterion of fit between prototypes and test samples was used for classification. The most significant results were these. By averaging over different subjects, as well as trials, we created prototypes from brain waves evoked by simple visual images and test samples from brain waves evoked by auditory or visual words naming the visual images. We correctly recognized from 60% to 75% of the test-sample brain waves. The general conclusion is that simple shapes such as circles and single-color displays generate brain waves surprisingly similar to those generated by their verbal names. These results, taken together with extensive psychological studies of auditory and visual memory, strongly support the solution proposed for visual shapes, by Bishop Berkeley and David Hume in the 18th century, to the long-standing problem of how the mind represents simple abstract ideas.

Brain wave recognition of words

Electrical and magnetic brain waves of seven subjects under three experimental conditions were recorded for the purpose of recognizing which one of seven words was processed. The analysis consisted of averaging over trials to create prototypes and test samples, to both of which Fourier transforms were applied, followed by filtering and an inverse transformation to the time domain. The filters used were optimal predictive filters, selected for each subject and condition. Recognition rates, based on a least-squares criterion, varied widely, but all but one of 24 were significantly different from chance. The two best were above 90%. These results show that brain waves carry substantial information about the word being processed under experimental conditions of conscious awareness.

Brain-wave representation of words by superposition of a few sine waves

Data from three previous experiments were analyzed to test the hypothesis that brain waves of spoken or written words can be represented by the superposition of a few sine waves. First, we averaged the data over trials and a set of subjects, and, in one case, over experimental conditions as well. Next we applied a Fourier transform to the averaged data and selected those frequencies with high energy, in no case more than nine in number. The superpositions of these selected sine waves were taken as prototypes. The averaged unfiltered data were the test samples. The prototypes were used to classify the test samples according to a least-squares criterion of fit. The results were seven of seven correct classifications for the first experiment using only three frequencies, six of eight for the second experiment using nine frequencies, and eight of eight for the third experiment using five frequencies.

Brain-wave recognition of sentences

Electrical and magnetic brain waves of two subjects were recorded for the purpose of recognizing which one of 12 sentences or seven words auditorily presented was processed. The analysis consisted of averaging over trials to create prototypes and test samples, to each of which a Fourier transform was applied, followed by filtering and an inverse transformation to the time domain. The filters used were optimal predictive filters, selected for each subject. A still further improvement was obtained by taking differences between recordings of two electrodes to obtain bipolar pairs that then were used for the same analysis. Recognition rates, based on a least-squares criterion, varied, but the best were above 90%. The first words of prototypes of sentences also were cut and pasted to test, at least partially, the invariance of a word’s brain wave in different sentence contexts. The best result was above 80% correct recognition. Test samples made up only of individual trials also were analyzed. The best result was 134 correct of 288 (47%), which is promising, given that the expected recognition number by chance is just 24 (or 8.3%). The work reported in this paper extends our earlier work on brain-wave recognition of words only. The recognition rates reported here further strengthen the case that recordings of electric brain waves of words or sentences, together with extensive mathematical and statistical analysis, can be the basis of new developments in our understanding of brain processing of language.

Pore-forming toxins trigger shedding of receptors for interleukin 6 and lipopolysaccharide.

Cleavage of membrane-associated proteins with the release of biologically active macromolecules is an emerging theme in biology. However, little is known about the nature and regulation of the involved proteases or about the physiological inducers of the shedding process. We here report that rapid and massive shedding of the interleukin 6 receptor (IL-6R) and the lipopolysaccharide receptor (CD14) occurs from primary and transfected cells attacked by two prototypes of pore-forming bacterial toxins, streptolysin O and Escherichia coli hemolysin. Shedding is not induced by an streptolysin O toxin mutant which retains cell binding capacity but lacks pore-forming activity. The toxin-dependent cleavage site of the IL-6R was mapped to a position close to, but distinct from, that observed after stimulation with phorbol myristate acetate. Soluble IL-6R that was shed from toxin-treated cells bound its ligand and induced an IL-6-specific signal in cells that primarily lacked the IL-6R. Transsignaling by soluble IL-6R and soluble CD14 is known to dramatically broaden the spectrum of host cells for IL-6 and lipopolysaccharide, and is thus an important mechanism underlying their systemic inflammatory effects. Our findings uncover a novel mechanism that can help to explain the long-range detrimental action of pore-forming toxins in the host organism.

The role of voice input for human-machine communication.

Optimism is growing that the near future will witness rapid growth in human-computer interaction using voice. System prototypes have recently been built that demonstrate speaker-independent real-time speech recognition, and understanding of naturally spoken utterances with vocabularies of 1000 to 2000 words, and larger. Already, computer manufacturers are building speech recognition subsystems into their new product lines. However, before this technology can be broadly useful, a substantial knowledge base is needed about human spoken language and performance during computer-based spoken interaction. This paper reviews application areas in which spoken interaction can play a significant role, assesses potential benefits of spoken interaction with machines, and compares voice with other modalities of human-computer interaction. It also discusses information that will be needed to build a firm empirical foundation for the design of future spoken and multimodal interfaces. Finally, it argues for a more systematic and scientific approach to investigating spoken input and performance with future language technology.

Study of interaction between Si(O,C) nanowires and the biological system

Nanomedicine is a new branch of medicine, based on the potentiality and intrinsic properties of nanomaterials. Indeed, the nanomaterials ( i.e. the materials with nano and under micron size) can be suitable to different applications in biomedicine. The nanostructures can be used by taking advantage of their properties (for example superparamagnetic nanoparticles) or functionalized to deliver the drug in a specific target, thanks the ability to cross biological barriers. The size and the shape of 1D-nanostructures (nanotubes and nanowires) have an important role on the cell fate: their morphology plays a key role on the interaction between nanostructure and the biological system. For this reason the 1D nanostructure are interesting for their ability to mime the biological system. An implantable material or device must therefore integrate with the surrounding extracellular matrix (ECM), a complex network of proteins with structural and signaling properties. Innovative techniques allow the generation of complex surface patterns that can resemble the structure of the ECM, such as 1D nanostructures. NWs based on cubic silicon carbide (3C-SiC), either bare (3C-SiC NWs) or surrounded by an amorphous shell (3C-SiC/SiO2 core/shell NWs), and silicon oxycarbide nanowires (SiOxCy NWs) can meet the chemical, mechanical and electrical requirements for tissue engineering and have a strong potential to pave the way for the development of a novel generation of implantable nano-devices. Silicon oxycarbide shows promising physical and chemical properties as elastic modulus, bending strength and hardness, chemical durability superior to conventional silicate glasses in aggressive environments and high temperature stability up to 1300 °C. Moreover, it can easily be engineered through functionalization and decoration with macro-molecules and nanoparticles. Silicon carbide has been extensively studied for applications in harsh conditions, as chemical environment, high electric field and high and low temperature, owing to its high hardness, high thermal conductivity, chemical inertness and high electron mobility. Also, its cubic polytype (3C) is highly biocompatible and hemocompatible, and some prototypes of biomedical applications and biomedical devices have been already realized starting from 3C-SiC thin films. Cubic SiC-based NWs can be used as a biomimetic biomaterial, providing a robust and novel biocompatible biological interface . We cultured in vitro A549 human lung adenocarcinoma epithelial cells and L929 murine fibroblast cells over core/shell SiC/SiO2, SiOxCy and bare 3C-SiC nanowire platforms, and analysed the cytotoxicity, by indirect and direct contact tests, the cell adhesion, and the cell proliferation. These studies showed that all the nanowires are biocompatible according to ISO 10993 standards. We evaluated the blood compatibility through the interaction of the nanowires with platelet rich plasma. The adhesion and activation of platelets on the nanowire bundles, assessed via SEM imaging and soluble P-selectin quantification, indicated that a higher platelet activation is induced by the core/shell structures compared to the bare ones. Further, platelet activation is higher with 3C-SiC/SiO2 NWs and SiOxCyNWs, which therefore appear suitable in view of possible tissue regeneration. On the contrary, bare 3C-SiC NWs show a lower platelet activation and are therefore promising in view of implantable bioelectronics devices, as cardiovascular implantable devices. The NWs properties are suitable to allow the design of a novel subretinal Micro Device (MD). This devices is based on Si NWs and PEDOT:PSS, though the well know principle of the hybrid ordered bulk heterojunction (OBHJ). The aim is to develop a device based on a well-established photovoltaic technology and to adapt this know-how to the prosthetic field. The hybrid OBHJ allows to form a radial p–n junction on a nanowire/organic structure. In addition, the nanowires increase the light absorption by means of light scattering effects: a nanowires based p-n junction increases the light absorption up to the 80%, as previously demonstrated, overcoming the Shockley-Queisser limit of 30 % of a bulk p-n junction. Another interesting employment of these NWs is to design of a SiC based epicardial-interacting patch based on teflon that include SiC nanowires. . Such contact patch can bridge the electric conduction across the cardiac infarct as nanowires can ‘sense’ the direction of the wavefront propagation on the survival cardiac tissue and transmit it to the downstream surivived regions without discontinuity. The SiC NWs are tested in terms of toxicology, biocompatibility and conductance among cardiomyocytes and myofibroblasts.

Photoconductivity and Electro-Optical Properties of Wide Band Gap Metal Oxides

The PhD activity described in this Thesis was focused on the study of metal-oxide wide-bandgap materials, aiming at fabricating new optoelectronic devices such as solar-blind UV photodetectors, high power electronics, and gas sensors. Photocurrent spectroscopy and DC photocurrent time evolution were used to investigate the performance of prototypes under different atmospheres, temperatures and excitation wavelengths (or dark conditions). Cathodoluminescence, absorption spectroscopy, XRD and SEM were used to assess structural, morphologic, electrical and optical properties of materials. This thesis is divided into two main sections, each describing the work done on a different metal-oxide semiconductor. 1) MOVPE-grown Ga2O3 thin films for UV solar-blind photodetectors and high power devices The semiconducting oxides, among them Ga2O3, have been employed for several decades as transparent conducting oxide (TCO) electrodes for fabrication of solar cells, displays, electronic, and opto-electronic devices. The interest was mainly confined to such applications, as these materials tend to grow intrinsically n-type, and attempts to get an effective p-type doping has consistently failed. The key requirements of TCO electrodes are indeed high electrical conductivity and good transparency, while crystallographic perfection is a minor issue. Furthermore, for a long period no high-quality substrates and epi-layers were available, which in turn impeded the development of a truly full-oxide electronics. Recently, Ga2O3 has attracted renewed interest, as large single crystals and high-quality homo- and hetero-epitaxial layers became available, which paved the way to novel application areas. Our research group spent the last two years in developing a low temperature (500-700°C) MOVPE growth procedure to obtain thin films of Ga2O3 on different substrates (Dept. of Physics and IMEM-CNR at UNIPR). We obtained a significant result growing on oriented sapphire epitaxial films of high crystalline, undoped, pure phase -Ga2O3 (hexagonal). The crystallographic properties of this phase were investigated by XRD, in order to clarify the lattice parameters of the hexagonal cell. First design and development of solar blind UV photodetectors based on -phase was carried out and the optoelectronic performance is evaluated by means of photocurrent spectroscopy. The UV-response is adequately fast and reliable to render this unusual phase a subject of great interest for future applications. The availability of a hexagonal phase of Ga2O3 stable up to 700°C, belonging to the same space group of gallium nitride, with high crystallinity and tunable electrical properties, is intriguing in view of the development of nitride-based devices, by taking advantage of the more favorable symmetry and epitaxial relationships with respect to the monoclinic β-phase. In addition, annealing at temperatures higher than 700°C demonstrate that the hexagonal phase converts totally in the monoclinic one. 2) ZnO nano-tetrapods: charge transport mechanisms and time-response in optoelectronic devices and sensors Size and morphology of ZnO at the nanometer scale play a key role in tailoring its physical and chemical properties. Thanks to the possibility of growing zinc oxide in a variety of different nanostructures, there is a great variety of applications, among which gas sensors, light emitting diodes, transparent conducting oxides, solar cells. Even if the operation of ZnO nanostructure-based devices has been recently demonstrated, the mechanisms of charge transport in these assembly is still under debate. The candidate performed an accurate investigation by photocurrent spectroscopy and DC-photocurrent time evolution of electrical response of both single-tetrapod and tetrapod-assembly devices. During the research done for this thesis, a thermal activation energy enables the performance of samples at high temperatures (above about 300°C). The energy barrier is related to the leg-to-leg interconnection in the assembly of nanotetrapods. Percolation mechanisms are responsible for both the very slow photo-response (minutes to hours or days) and the significant persistent photocurrent. Below the bandgap energy, electronic states were investigated but their contribution to the photocurrent are two-three order of magnitude lower than the band edge. Such devices are suitable for employ in photodetectors as well as in gas sensors, provided that the mechanism by which the photo-current is generated and gas adsorption on the surface modify the conductivity of the material are known.