A construção da síndrome pré-menstrual

Esta pesquisa visa problematizar a síndrome pré-menstrual (SPM) enquanto entidade biomédica a-histórica tornada evidente a partir do preenchimento de critérios diagnósticos. O ponto de partida é a hipótese de que o modelo biomédico de explicação da SPM incorpora e reproduz os padrões sociais vigentes que insistem em visões estereotipadas dos gêneros em função da diferenciação biológica dos sexos. A partir de uma reflexão sobre a construção do fato científico e da preponderância do discurso biomédico na compreensão dos corpos, emoções e comportamentos femininos, analisamos as mudanças históricas ocorridas nessa visão considerada reducionista. No final do século XVIII e início do XIX, a essência da feminilidade era localizada no útero; a partir de meados do século XIX, os ovários passaram a ser considerados a fonte das doenças das mulheres, inclusive as nervosas e mentais. No início do século XX começou a ocorrer uma mudança nos discursos biomédicos e a essência da feminilidade passou a ser localizada em substâncias químicas denominadas hormônios. Desde então o organismo feminino tornou-se cada vez mais representado como controlado pelos hormônios, reificando a crença de que as mulheres são cíclicas e em determinados períodos, instáveis, irracionais e, portanto, não confiáveis. Essa ênfase nos hormônios coincide com a primeira descrição, em 1931, do que era chamado tensão pré-menstrual. Na década de 1950, a terminologia mudou para síndrome pré-menstrual. Inicialmente foi compreendida como diretamente produzida pelos hormônios femininos, mas não há evidência empírica que comprove esta hipótese. Após 80 anos de pesquisas, não se encontrou um marcador biológico ou teste bioquímico que possa ser utilizado para o diagnóstico. Os próprios critérios diagnósticos não são consensuais entre os pesquisadores, pois foram descritos mais de 200 sintomas que incidem de forma variada e inconstante. Não se conhece ainda o mecanismo etiopatogênico e alguns autores questionam a própria existência da síndrome enquanto entidade biomédica e apresentam visões feministas e sócio-culturais para a compreensão do fenômeno. Muitas mulheres, entretanto, afirmam ter TPM (nomenclatura mais comum nos meios leigos). Para aprofundar esta questão e ampliar nossa compreensão, a análise de artigos biomédicos recentes (2000 a 2011) sobre a SPM foi confrontada com a experiência direta ou indireta da TPM em mulheres de camadas médias da população. Com este objetivo, foram analisados artigos científicos sobre a SPM selecionados a partir de um levantamento no PubMed, ferramenta de buscas online, e realizadas entrevistas individuais em profundidade, abertas, semi-estruturadas com mulheres em idade reprodutiva selecionadas através do sistema de amostragem conhecido como bola de neve (snow ball). Após a análise tanto dos artigos científicos quanto das entrevistas, concluímos que apesar de pressupostos comuns que a biologia determina diferenças de gênero naturais e universais entre homens e mulheres a SPM dos artigos biomédicos e a TPM das mulheres não coincidem. Sem desconsiderar as sensações desagradáveis, os problemas e o sofrimento das mulheres que afirmam ter TPM, os resultados deste estudo apontam para uma realidade complexa que enseja mais pesquisa em direção a descrições menos reducionistas destas experiências femininas

Report on the 1995 stock assessment of the Douglas catchment

The River Douglas has a long industrial heritage beginning in the early 18th century with its use by boats carrying goods between Wigan and Tarleton. The River and its tributaries have also historically been, and to a certain extent are still, subject to polluting inputs from the urban, agricultural and industrialised areas located within its catchment. During the early stages in the production of the River Douglas Catchment Management Plan, it became apparent that very little data existed on the populations of coarse and salmonid fish species within the River Douglas system. The data that did exist was largely anecdotal, consisting of catch reports from anglers or water bailiffs, or of dead and distressed fish following pollution incidents. This study was initiated to assess the status of coarse and salmonid fish species within the River Douglas system and so address the lack of knowledge. Eighty two sites were surveyed by electric fishing, including 14 sites using an electric fishing punt and up to four anodes. The data was analysed according to a new National Fisheries Classification Scheme. This classified the sites by the fish stock s present and compared the results with a database containing information from sites around the country that have similar habitat types. A stocking experiment was also undertaken in the River Lostock using chub reared at the Leyland Hatchery. These were marked with an identifiable blue spot in the spring of 1995 and then released into three, previously surveyed, locations in the river. These sites were then resurveyed during the summer stock assessment. This report also Site Reports with details on monitored sites, habitat features and fishery classification.

O que há de metafísica na mecânica do século XVIII?

Ao contrário do período precedente de criação da chamada ciência moderna, o século XVIII parece não desempenhar um papel fundamental no desenvolvimento da física. Na visão de muitos autores, o século das luzes é considerado como uma fase de organização da mecânica que teve seu coroamento com as obras de Lagrange, imediatamente precedidas por Euler e dAlembert. Muitos autores afirmam que na formulação da mecânica racional houve uma eliminação gradual da metafísica e também da teologia e que o surgimento da física moderna veio acompanhado por uma rejeição da metafísica aristotélica da substância e qualidade, forma e matéria, potência e ato. O ponto central da tese é mostrar que, no século XVIII, houve uma preocupação e um grande esforço de alguns filósofos naturais que participaram da formação da mecânica, em determinar como seria possível descrever fenômenos através da matemática. De uma forma geral, a filosofia mecanicista exigia que as mudanças observadas no mundo natural fossem explicadas apenas em termos de movimento e de rearranjos das partículas da matéria, uma vez que os predecessores dos filósofos iluministas conseguiram, em parte, eliminar da filosofia natural o conceito de causas finais e a maior parte dos conceitos aristotélicos de forma e substância, por exemplo. Porém, os filósofos mecanicistas divergiam sobre as causas do movimento. O que faria um corpo se mover? Uma força externa? Uma força interna? Força nenhuma? Todas essas posições tinham seus adeptos e todas sugeriam reflexões filosóficas que ultrapassavam os limites das ciências da natureza. Mais ainda: conceitos como espaço, tempo, força, massa e inércia, por exemplo, são conceitos imprescindíveis da mecânica que representam uma realidade. Mas como a manifestação dessa realidade se torna possível? Como foram definidos esses conceitos? Embora não percebamos explicitamente uma discussão filosófica em muitos livros que versam sobre a mecânica, atitudes implícitas dessa natureza são evidentes no tratamento das questões tais como a ambição à universalidade e a aplicação da matemática. Galileu teve suas motivações e suas razões para afirmar que o livro da natureza está escrito em liguagem matemática. No entanto, embora a matemática tenha se tornado a linguagem da física, mostramos com esta tese que a segunda não se reduz à primeira. Podemos, à luz desta pesquisa, falarmos de uma mecânica racional no sentido de ser ela proposta pela razão para organizar e melhor estruturar dados observáveis obtidos através da experimentação. Porém, mostramos que essa ciência não foi, como os filósofos naturais pretendiam que assim fosse, obtidas sem hipóteses e convenções subjetivas. Por detrás de uma representação explicativa e descritiva dos fenômenos da natureza e de uma consistência interna de seus próprios conteúdos confirmados através da matemática, verificamos a presença da metafísica.

Heróis a contrapelo: lampejos do gênio na escrita dos jovens Goethe e Schiller

O estilo de época Sturm und Drang, o primeiro movimento literário genuinamente alemão, surgido na segunda metade do século XVIII, possibilitou a emancipação literária da Alemanha e introduziu naquele país o conceito de gênio original. A partir da descoberta da obra do gênio inglês Shakespeare (possibilitada pelas traduções de Christoph Martin Wieland), os alemães se depararam com o modelo de revolução literária que necessitavam para instituir as bases da originalidade literária alemã. Pautando-se na estrutura dramática shakespeariana, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe e Friedrich Schiller elaboraram seus dramas de estreia, obras foco da presente pesquisa: Götz von Berlichingen e Os bandoleiros, respectivamente. O presente estudo propõe-se, por conseguinte, a analisar as obras supracitadas à luz da temática do gênio original. Mas, primeiramente, são observados os fatores (como a ascenção do romance inglês) e escritores (como Gothold Ephraim Lessing, Johann Jakob Bodmer, Johann Jakob Breitinger, Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock, Johann Joachim Winckelmann, Wieland e Johann Gottfried von Herder) que colaboraram para a instituição da era genial na Alemanha

The sublime and its different perspective in the gothic literature

O objetivo da presente dissertação consiste em analisar o sublime, um conceito estético que vem sendo estudado desde os primeiros séculos. Tomamos como base a definição do sublime como algo paradoxal que cria o prazer e o medo ao mesmo tempo. Porém, o sublime apresenta especificidades que variam de acordo com o filósofo analisado. Neste trabalho, três críticos foram estudados: Longinus, Edmund Burke e Immanuel Kant. Assim, o sublime pode ser representado através da imensidão da natureza, do poder de uma criatura sobrenatural ou, até mesmo, através da sexualidade feminina. E, com o intuito de exemplificar essas diferentes perspectivas do sublime, buscamos obras da Literatura Gótica. Sendo esta uma vertente literária que buscava a oposição ao racionalismo trazido pelo movimento iluminista, as características sublimes foram essenciais para enfatizar a emoção. Para tal exemplificação, utilizamos trechos de dois romances góticos dos séculos XVIII e XIX, respectivamente: The Monk escrito por Matthew Lewis e Dracula escrito por Bram Stoker

Fisheries research in Uganda

Evolution of fisheries research and FIRRI The earliest approach to fisheries research in Uganda dates from the first fisheries survey of Lake Victoria by Michael Graham between 1927 and 1928 (Graham, 1929). Based on references to the rich fisheries that were reported to Graham, it appears that during the 18th Century, catch per net per night averaged 300 tilapia, a revelation that led Graham to conclude that Lake Victoria is a tilapia lake. The "tilapia" later came to be known as Tilapia esculenta and T variabilis (Oreochromis esculentus and O. variabilis) respectively.

Sediment sources and the flood record from Wanghu lake, in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River

A sediment core was collected from the centre of Wanghu Lake, in the Middle Reaches of the Yangtze River. The recent part of the core was dated using a combination of Pb-210 and spheroidal carbonaceous particle (SCP) techniques. Extrapolating this chronology dated the laminated section of the core, between 723 and 881 mm, to the first half of the 18th century and this section was selected for detailed study. The thicknesses of the laminae were measured using reflecting and polarizing microscopes whilst geochemistry was determined by an electron probe. The thickness of the dark layers was found to be positively correlated with titanium concentrations, and negatively correlated with aluminium and potassium concentrations. The thickness of the light layers was found to be negatively correlated with the concentrations of titanium. It is concluded that the dark layers were deposited from the Fushui River, a tributary of the Yangtze River, under periods of normal flow whilst the light Layers were mainly deposited from the Yangtze River itself during flood periods. Documentary evidence for floods occurring in the take catchment corresponded with thick laminations of high titanium concentration. Further, two of the three thickest, light laminations with low titanium concentrations were found to be synchronous with recorded flood dates of the main Yangtze River in its Middle Reaches, but one was synchronous with a local drought. These data suggest that the Lake sediment provides an archive of the relative water levels of the Yangtze and Wanghu including floods of both the main Yangtze River and the local hydrological regime. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

In the Ojibway country : a story of early missions on the Minnesota frontier

http://www.archive.org/details/inojibwaycountry00scheiala

St. Columba, Silnán, and the 'Male Bovine' (VC 2.17)

At Vita Columbae VC 2.17, Adomnán has severely misunderstood a written source which originally described how Columba ordered one party to a dispute, an alleged maleficus ‘evil-doer’ called Silnán, to milk a sick cow in order to settle the dispute by demonstrating that its contaminated milk was the real, hidden cause of the harm which had occasioned the dispute. Adomnán misread a description of a bos maculosus ‘pock-marked bovine’ to refer to a bos masculus ‘male bovine’, and proceeded to misunderstand the story as the description of some form of contest between Columba and a maleficus ‘sorcerer’.

Breaking ranks: the emergence of representative associations in the Irish armed forces 1989-1992

This study contexualises the relationship between the armed forces and the civil authority in Ireland using and revising the theoretical framework advanced by Huntington. It tracks the evolution of the idea of a representive body for soldiers in the late 1980s, to the setting up of statutory associations under the Defence Amendment Act 1990. The study considers Irish soldiers political agitation and their use of peaceful democratic activities to achieve their aims. It highlights the fundamental policy arguments that were made against the idea of representation for the army and positions those arguments in the study of civil-military relations. Utilising unique access to secret Department of Defence files, it reveals in-depth ideological arguments advanced by the military authories in Ireland against independent representation. This thesis provides an academic study of the establishment of PDFORRA. It answers key questions regarding the change in the position of Irish government who were categorically opposed to the idea of representation in the army. It illustrates the involvement of other agencies such as the European Organisation of Military Associations (Euromil) reveals reciprocal support by the Irish associations to other emerging groups in Spain. Accessing as yet unpublished Department of Defence files, study analyses tension between the military authorities and the government. It highlights for the first time the role of enlisted personnel in the shaping of new state structures and successfully dismmisses Huntingtons theoretical contention that enlisted personnel are of no consequence in the study of civil-military relations. It fills a gap in our understanding, identified by Finer, as to how politicisation of soldiers takes place. This thesis brings a new dimension to the discipline of civil-military relations and creates new knowledge that will enhance our understanding of an area not covered previously.

Lámhscríbhinní gaeilge i leabharlanna sa tuaisceart

Accepted Version

Female sexuality in Ireland 1920 to 1940: Construction and regulation

The central objective of this study is an examination of discourses of Irish female sexuality and of the apparatuses of control designed for its surveillance and regulation in the period nineteen-twenty to nineteen-forty. It is argued that during this period sexuality, and in particular female sexuality, became established as an icon of national identity. This thesis demonstrated that this identity was given symbolic embodiment in the discursive construction of an idealised, feminine subject, a subject who had purity and sexual morality as her defining characteristics. It is argued that female roles and in particular female sexuality, emerged as contested issues in post-colonial Ireland. This is not unusual given that women are frequently constructed in nationalist discourses as repositories of cultural heritage and symbols of national identity (Kandiyoti 1993). This thesis demonstrates that the Catholic Church played a central role in this process of establishing female sexuality as a national icon. Furthermore, it illustrates that through a process of identification and classification, women, whose behaviour contested the prescribed sexual norm, were categorized and labeled as 'wayward girls' 'unmarried mothers' or 'prostitutes'and mechanisms for their control were set in place. Finally, this thesis reveals that the development of these control apparatuses was mediated by class, with the sexuality of working class women being a primary target of surveillance, regulation and indeed reformation.

Edmund Burke and the heritage of oral culture

The dissertation proposes that one of the more fruitful ways of interpreting Burke's work is to evaluate him as an oral performer rather than a literary practitioner and it argues that in his voice can be heard the modulations of the genres and conventions of oral composition of eighteenth-century Gaelic Ireland. The first chapter situates Burke in the milieu of the Gaelic landed class of eighteenth-century Ireland. The next chapter examines how the rich oral culture of the Munster Gaelic gentry, where Burke spent his childhood days, was to provide a lasting influence on the form and content of Burke's work. His speeches on the British constitution are read in the context of the historical and literary culture of the Jacobites, specifically the speculum principis, Párliament na mBán. The third chapter surveys the tradition of Anglo-Irish theoretical writings on oratory and discusses how Burke is aligned with this school. The focus is on how Burke's thought and practice, his 'idioms', might be understood as being mediated through the criterion of orality rather than literature. The remaining chapters discuss Burke's politics and performance in the light of Gaelic cultural practices such as the rituals of the courts of poetry, the Warrant Poems or Barántas; the performance of funeral laments and elegies, Caoineadh, the laments for the fallen nobility, Marbhna na daoine uaisle, the satires and the political vision allegories of Munster, Aislingí na Mumhan; to show how they provide us with a remarkable context for discussing Burke's poetical-political performance. In hearing Burke's voice through the body of Gaelic culture our understanding of Burke's position in the wider world of the eighteenth century (and hence his meaning) is profoundly affected.

Farmers, agriculture and politics in the Irish Free State area, 1919-1936

Given the economic and social importance of agriculture in the early years of the Irish Free State, it is surprising that the development of organisations representing farmers has not received the attention it deserves from historians. While the issues of government agricultural policy and the land question have been extensively studied in the historiography, the autonomous response by farmers to agricultural policies and the detailed study of the farmers’ organisations has simply been ignored in spite of the existence of a range of relevant primary sources. Farmers’ organisations have only received cursory treatment in these studies; they have been presented as passive spectators, responding in a Pavlovian manner to outside events. The existing historiography has only studied farmers’ organisations during periods when they impinged on national politics, epecially during the War of Independence and the Economic War. Therefore chronological gaps exist which has led to much misinterpretation of farmers’ activities. This thesis will redress this imbalance by studying the formation and continuous development of farmers’ organisations within the twenty-six county area and the reaction of farmers to changing government agricultural policies, over the period 1919 to 1936. The period under review entailed many attempts by farmers to form representative organisations and encompassed differing policy regimes. The thesis will open in 1919, when the first national organisation representing farmers, the Irish Farmers’ Union, was formed. In 1922, the union established the Farmers’ Party. By the mid- 1920’s, a number of protectionist agricultural associations had been formed. While the Farmers’ Party was eventually absorbed by Cumann na nGaedheal, local associations of independent farmers occupied the resultant vacuum and contested the 1932 election. These organisations formed the nucleus of a new national organisation; the National Farmers’ and Ratepayers’ League. The agricultural crisis caused by both the Great Depression and the Economic War facilitated the expansion of the league. The league formed a political party, the Centre Party, to contest the 1933 election. While the Centre Party was absorbed by the newly-formed Fine Gael, activists from the former farmer organisations led the campaign against the payment of annuities and rates. Many of them continued this campaign after 1934, when the Fine Gael leadership opposed the violent resistance to the collection of annuities. New farmer organisations were formed to co-ordinate this campaign which continued until 1936, the closing point of the thesis.

'La Violence et la mauvaise foi': Context and rhetoric in Pierre Bayle's Ce que c'est que la France toute Catholique

My thesis presents an examination of Ce que c'est que la France toute Catholique (1686) by Pierre Bayle, a prominent figure in the Republic of Letters and the Huguenot Refuge in the seventeenth century. This pamphlet was the first occasional text that Bayle published following the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in which the religious toleration afforded to the Huguenot minority in France was repealed, a pivotal moment in the history of early modern France. In my thesis, I analyse the specific context within which Bayle wrote this pamphlet as a means of addressing a number of issues, including the legitimacy of forced conversions, the impact of the religious controversy upon exchanges in the Republic of Letters, the nature of religious zeal and finally the alliance of Church and state discourses in the early modern period. An examination of this context provides a basis from which to re-interpret the rhetorical strategies at work within the pamphlet, and also to come to an increased understanding of how, why and to what end he wrote it. In turn this allowed me to examine the relationship between this often overlooked pamphlet and the more extensively studied Commentaire Philosophique, in which Bayle argued in favour of religious toleration. Ultimately, understanding the relationship between these two texts proves essential in order to characterise his response to the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes and to understand the place of the pamphlet within his oeuvre. Furthermore, an analysis of the pamphlet and the Commentaire Philosophique provide a lens through which to elucidate both Bayle's intellectual development at this early stage in his career, and also the wider context of the rise of toleration theory and the evolution of modes of civility within the Republic of Letters on the eve of the Enlightenment.