El Tabac al món : la indústria a nivell local i global, legislació, problemes i reptes de futur

Per què a un fumador del Canadà li costa 10 vegades més diners comprar un paquet de tabac que el que li costa a un fumador de Cuba? Què se n’ha fet dels anuncis de Marlboro als cotxes de l’escuderia automovilística Ferrari? Comés que s’han creat espais reservats per a fumadors en els últims anys? Aquestes i altres preguntes sobre el món del tabac conformen l’objecte del nostre treball d’investigació. El nostre propòsit és intentar donar resposta a qüestions com aquestes, i fer que el lector entengui realment a què es deuen aquests canvis en l’estructura del mercat del tabac. Mostrarem, mitjançant una mirada analítica dels diferents factors, que gran part d’aquests efectes en un producte (com pot ser el cigarret, en el cas que ens ocupa) són extrapolables a altres béns i que es poden explicar des del punt de vista econòmic, examinant les decisions d’agents amagats com ara el govern, i considerant les repercussions dels diferents tipus de polítiques.Com tots sabem, el món actual està conformat per un seguit de relacions entre individus, o millor dit, agents econòmics que interactuen entre ells. Els resultats d’aquestes interaccions determinen el comportament de variables que, ben definides, poden ser estudiades, així com els seus efectes. Nosaltres hem intentat mostrar d’una manera senzilla i a l’abast de tothom fins a quin punt arriben aquestes interrelacions. El que preteníem en tot moment basar-nos en dades objectives obtingudes previ estudi. Es per això que, de la mateixa manera que al acabar el treball el lector serà capaç d’entendre per què varia elpreu del mateix bé al creuar una frontera, queda a càrrec de cadascú determinar si, per exemple, els fumadors són objectes de persecució o de si les mesures paternalistes del govern envers la prohibició de la publicitat estan justificades.

Geographic variation in the frequency of isolation and fluconazole and voriconazole susceptibilities of Candida glabrata: an assessment from the ARTEMIS DISK Global Antifungal Surveillance Program.

Geographic differences in frequency and azole resistance among Candida glabrata may impact empiric antifungal therapy choice. We examined geographic variation in isolation and azole susceptibility of C. glabrata. We examined 23 305 clinical isolates of C. glabrata during ARTEMIS DISK global surveillance. Susceptibility testing to fluconazole and voriconazole was assessed by disk diffusion, and the results were grouped by geographic location: North America (NA) (2470 isolates), Latin America (LA) (2039), Europe (EU) (12 439), Africa and the Middle East (AME) (728), and Asia-Pacific (AP) (5629). Overall, C. glabrata accounted for 11.6% of 201 653 isolates of Candida and varied as a proportion of all Candida isolated from 7.4% in LA to 21.1% in NA. Decreased susceptibility (S) to fluconazole was observed in all geographic regions and ranged from 62.8% in AME to 76.7% in LA. Variation in fluconazole susceptibility was observed within each region: AP (range, 50-100% S), AME (48-86.9%), EU (44.8-88%), LA (43-92%), and NA (74.5-91.6%). Voriconazole was more active than fluconazole (range, 82.3-84.2% S) with similar regional variation. Among 22 sentinel sites participating in ARTEMIS from 2001 through 2007 (84 140 total isolates, 8163 C. glabrata), the frequency of C. glabrata isolation increased in 14 sites and the frequency of fluconazole resistance (R) increased in 11 sites over the 7-year period of study. The sites with the highest cumulative rates of fluconazole R were in Poland (22% R), the Czech Republic (27% R), Venezuela (27% R), and Greece (33% R). C. glabrata was most often isolated from blood, normally sterile body fluids and urine. There is substantial geographic and institutional variation in both frequency of isolation and azole resistance among C. glabrata. Prompt species identification and fluconazole susceptibility testing are necessary to optimize therapy for invasive candidiasis.

Global Prospects for Dairy in Argentina and Chile: Evidence from Field Visits and Model Simulations, August 2006

We assess the international competitiveness of the dairy industries in Argentina and Chile, combining recent market intelligence gathered from field visits with quantitative simulations of global policy reform scenarios. Both countries exhibit strong potential for export growth but face significant internal and external barriers to expanding their dairy industries. Global policy reforms would resolve some of the international obstacles to their expansion. Argentina has great potential, but it is handicapped by its current macroeconomic policies, trade policy distortions, and the uncertainty associated with policy implementation. Chile is more limited in terms of natural capacity for expansion, but it has a positive trade and investment environment.

Hormonal, global, and regional haemodynamic responses to a vascular antagonist of vasopressin in patients with congestive heart failure with and without hyponatraemia.

The pathophysiological role of an increase in circulating vasopressin in sustaining global and regional vasoconstriction in patients with congestive heart failure has not been established, particularly in patients with hyponatraemia. To assess this further, 20 patients with congestive heart failure refractory to digoxin and diuretics were studied before and 60 minutes after the intravenous injection (5 micrograms/kg) of the vascular antagonist of vasopressin [1(beta-mercapto-beta,beta-cyclopentamethylene-propionic acid), 2-(0-methyl) tyrosine] arginine vasopressin. Ten patients were hyponatraemic (plasma sodium less than 135 mmol/l) and 10 were normonatraemic. In both groups of patients the vascular vasopressin antagonist did not alter systemic or pulmonary artery pressures, right atrial pressure, pulmonary capillary wedge pressure, cardiac index, or vascular resistances. Furthermore, there was no change in skin and hepatic blood flow in either group after the injection of the vascular antagonist. Only one patient in the hyponatraemic group showed considerable haemodynamic improvement. He had severe congestive heart failure and a high concentration of plasma vasopressin (51 pmol/l). Plasma renin activity, vasopressin, or catecholamine concentrations were not significantly changed in response to the administration of the vasopressin antagonist in either the hyponatraemic or the normonatraemic groups. Patients with hyponatraemia, however, had higher baseline plasma catecholamine concentrations, heart rate, pulmonary pressure and resistance, and lower hepatic blood flow than patients without hyponatraemia. Plasma vasopressin and plasma renin activity were slightly, though not significantly, higher in the hyponatraemic group. Thus the role of vasopressin in sustaining regional or global vasoconstriction seems limited in patients with congestive heart failure whether or not concomitant hyponatraemia is present. Vasopressin significantly increases the vascular tone only in rare patients with severe congestive heart failure and considerably increased vasopressin concentrations. Patients with hyponatraemia do, however, have raised baseline catecholamine concentrations, heart rate, pulmonary arterial pressure and resistance, and decreased hepatic blood flow.

RELATÓRIO GLOBAL DE SEGUIMENTO DA EXECUÇÃO DA ESTRATÉGIA DE CRESCIMENTO E DE REDUÇÃO DA POBREZA DECRP II

DIRECÇÃO NACIONAL DO PLANEAMENTO

The Role of Public Administration: A Global Perspective

From my experience with public administration in my country, Cape Verde, and through readings in the area of development administration, I have found that a distinctive role and specific societal goals are usually ascribed to public administration in developing country. In studying American public administration approaches and operation, I was stuck by the fact that the definition of roles and societal goals for public administration seems not to be a forefront concern in the field. How to do things and achieve efficiency, in a managerial and rational perspective, seemed to draw much more attention than the purpose of doing things. Somehow, the contrast with the concept of development administration seemed too sharp, and I became curious about the reasons for such disparate approaches. Historical, cultural, and environmental differences would probably not be the only explanation for that since the concept of development administration was shaped, in the late 50’s and 60’s, by American authors and institutional aid agencies, and then “offered” to developing countries. At the same time, looking to poor results of the successive prescriptions of the development administration movement, I was no sure that such a concept and the framework it establishes was worthwhile. What practical answers and arrangement did they bring to the needs and challenges of public administrations in developing countries? …

Reconciling global mammal prioritization schemes into a strategy.

The huge conservation interest that mammals attract and the large datasets that have been collected on them have propelled a diversity of global mammal prioritization schemes, but no comprehensive global mammal conservation strategy. We highlight some of the potential discrepancies between the schemes presented in this theme issue, including: conservation of species or areas, reactive and proactive conservation approaches, conservation knowledge and action, levels of aggregation of indicators of trend and scale issues. We propose that recently collected global mammal data and many of the mammal prioritization schemes now available could be incorporated into a comprehensive global strategy for the conservation of mammals. The task of developing such a strategy should be coordinated by a super-partes, authoritative institution (e.g. the International Union for Conservation of Nature, IUCN). The strategy would facilitate funding agencies, conservation organizations and national institutions to rapidly identify a number of short-term and long-term global conservation priorities, and act complementarily to achieve them.

Estratégia e Plano de Acção Nacional para o Desenvolvimento das Capacidades na Gestão Ambiental Global em Cabo Verde

- A ligação entre a Gestão Ambiental Global e o Desenvolvimento Durável é capital para um país como Cabo Verde. Os “cenários” de desenvolvimento humano e económico, tendo em conta a vulnerabilidade ambiental e no contexto de um pequeno estado insular em desenvolvimento (SIDS), devem ser bem avaliados e implementados com uma visão estratégica integrada, sinérgica e de longo prazo. - É necessário ultrapassar as políticas e traduzir essas políticas em acções práticas e concretas, principalmente em acções de capacitação em gestão ambiental, é assim que surge o projecto NCSA-GEM para desenvolver as capacidades nacionais em termos individuais, institucionais e sistémico, nos domínios prioritários das Convenções Internacionais de Rio e, consequentemente reforçar a implementação do PANA II enquanto instrumento nacional para a gestão do ambiente. - A implementação das Convenções Internacionais do Rio revela muitas interacções, semelhanças e intersecções. A sua compreensão e apreensão através de uma abordagem coordenada são susceptíveis de melhorar a eficácia e eficiência. As ligações existentes entre as convenções devem ser entendidas como oportunidades favorecendo a implementação de acções concretas. A implementação das obrigações ou engajamentos das convenções necessita fortes capacidades nacionais e locais de acordo com a importância dos seus objectivos. As Convenções Internacionais já foram implantadas em Cabo Verde há vários anos; no entanto, o problema da coordenação das suas implementações quer separada ou sinérgica não teve ainda solução, revelando se necessário a elaboração de uma Estratégia e Plano de Acção para o Desenvolvimento das Capacidades. - A abordagem utilizada, de acordo com a metodologia e orientações do projecto NCSA, foi a análise de toda a documentação existente sobre as três Convenções (CCD, CBD; CCC), Gestão Ambiental, Estratégias Nacionais de Desenvolvimento, DCRP, Planos de Acção Nacionais, CCD, CBD, CCC, PANA II, Guia Metodológico do NCSA-GEF, Modelos existentes em outros países, Perfis Temáticos e Estudo de Transversalidade e Sinergia entre as três Convenções do Rio em Cabo Verde, entre outros. Também priorizou se a abordagem participativa e pró-activa com os diferentes actores e parceiros técnicos e financeiros, através de realizações de sessões de trabalho, jornadas e ateliers a nível central e descentralizado. - Para que haja uma implementação efectiva do EPAN-NCSA, recomenda-se : • Garantir um suporte de político de alto nível para a gestão do processo (playdoyer/lobbying junto das mais altas autoridades governamentais do país e dos parceiros estratégicos de desenvolvimento); • Escolher a opção para a estrutura de coordenação e implementação do EPAN-NCSA ou a combinação das opções apresentadas; Elaborar os TDR para a organização ou entidade líder do processo de coordenação implementação do EPAN-NCSA, incluindo todos os requisitos organizacionais e operacionais; • Elaborar e divulgar brochuras NCSA de informação sobre as (oportunidades) das Convenções de Rio e um Manual de Procedimentos integrando o papel e responsabilidades dos actores/parceiros chaves no desenvolvimento das capacidades para a gestão ambiental; • Procurar fundos para a instalação da estrutura/organização responsável pela implementação do EPAN-NCSA e procurar fundos operacionais para as acções específicas propostas no Plano. Algumas fontes de financiamento podem ser abordadas nomeadamente: (1) Os orçamentos nacionais; (2) Fundos e programas País – do sistema das NU; (3) Fundos do GEF; (4) Fundo para o Ambiente; (5) Mecanismos financeiros Inovadores no âmbito das Convenções. - A sustentabilidade da implementação do EPAN no âmbito do processo NCSA é condicionada por alguns riscos, nomeadamente: • Mudanças ou revisões institucionais; • Necessário enquadramento no novo sistema de gestão para o apoio orçamental com obrigação de apresentação de resultados sustentáveis; • Capacidade de resposta do País tendo em conta a sua graduação para PDM; • Consistência e viabilidade a longo prazo das Convenções do Rio. Esses riscos devem ser deliberadamente considerados nas opções governamentais, em como as capacidades prioritárias podem ser desenvolvidas, os mecanismos de sustentabilidade e mobilização de fundos podem ser alargados/ampliados e o desenho do sistema de seguimento e avaliação nacional pode ser implementado de forma a permitir a avaliação do progresso do desenvolvimento das capacidades no país. Esses riscos poderão ser mitigados para a sustentabilidade do Processo NCSA através de implementação de : (1) Uma estratégia NCSA de Mobilização de Recursos; (2) Uma Estratégia de Comunicação e Integração Estratégica do NCSA com o SIA e IEC; (3) Uma Estratégia PANNCSA para a investigação integrada, interdisciplinar e sustentável.

Conservation of oceanic island floras: Present and future global challenges

Currentthreatstotheplanet’sbiodiversityareunprecedented,andtheyparticularlyimperilinsular floras.Inthisinvestigation,weusethethreatfactorsidentifiedbytheMillenniumEcosystem Assessmentasthemaindriversofbiodiversitylossonislandstodefineandrank13current,continuing threatstotheplantdiversityofninefocalarchipelagoswherevolcanicorigin(orintheSeychellesa prolongedisolationafteracontinentalorigin)hasproducedahighdegreeofendemicityandfragilityin the faceofhabitatalteration.Wealsoconductaglobalendangermentassessmentbasedonthe numbersofinsularendemicplantsintheendangered(EN)andcriticallyendangered(CR)IUCN categoriesfor53islandgroupswithanestimated9951endemicplantspecies,providinga representativesampleoftheworld’sinsularsystemsandtheirfloristicrichness.Ouranalysesindicate that isolationdoesnotsignificantlyinfluenceendangerment,butplantendemicsfromverysmall islandsaremoreoftencriticallyendangered.Weestimatethatbetween3500and6800oftheestimated 70,000 insularendemicplantspeciesworldwidemightbehighlythreatened(CR+EN)andbetweenca. 2000 and2800ofthemincriticaldangerofextinction(CR).Basedontheseanalyses,andona worldwideliteraturereviewofthebiologicalthreatfactorsconsidered,weidentifychallenging questionsforconservationresearch,asking(i)whatarethemosturgentprioritiesfortheconservation of insularspeciesandfloras,and(ii)withtheknowledgeandassetsavailable,howcanweimprovethe impactofconservationscienceandpracticeonthepreservationofislandbiodiversity?Ouranalysis indicatesthatthesynergisticactionofmanythreatfactorscaninducemajorecologicaldisturbances, leadingtomultipleextinctions.Wereviewweaknessesandstrengthsinconservationresearchand managementintheninefocalarchipelagos,andhighlighttheurgentneedforconservationscientiststo shareknowledgeandexpertise,identifyanddiscusscommonchallenges,andformulatemulti- disciplinaryconservationobjectivesforinsularplantendemicsworldwide.Toourknowledge,thisisthe mostup-to-dateandcomprehensivesurveyyettoreviewthethreatfactorstonativeplantsonoceanic islandsanddefinepriorityresearchquestions.

Global Nash convergence of Foster and Young's regret testing

We construct an uncoupled randomized strategy of repeated play such that, if every player follows such a strategy, then the joint mixed strategy profiles converge, almost surely, to a Nash equilibrium of the one-shot game. The procedure requires very little in terms of players' information about the game. In fact, players' actions are based only on their own past payoffs and, in a variant of the strategy, players need not even know that their payoffs are determined through other players' actions. The procedure works for general finite games and is based on appropriate modifications of a simple stochastic learningrule introduced by Foster and Young.

A global view of economic growth

This paper integrates in a unified and tractable framework some of the key insights of the field of international trade and economic growth. It examines a sequence of theoretical models that share a common description of technology and preferences but differ on their assumptions about trade frictions. By comparing the predictions of these models against each other, it is possible to identify a variety of channels through which trade affects the evolution of world income and its geographical distribution. By comparing the predictions of these models against the data, it is also possible to construct coherent explanations of income differences and long-run trends in economic growth.

Thyroid cancer mortality and incidence: a global overview.

In most areas of the world, thyroid cancer incidence has been appreciably increasing over the last few decades, whereas mortality has steadily declined. We updated global trends in thyroid cancer mortality and incidence using official mortality data from the World Health Organization (1970-2012) and incidence data from the Cancer Incidence in Five Continents (1960-2007). Male mortality declined in all the major countries considered, with annual percent changes around -2/-3% over the last decades. Only in the United States mortality declined up to the mid 1980s and increased thereafter. Similarly, in women mortality declined in most countries considered, with APCs around -2/-5% over the last decades, with the exception of the UK, the United States and Australia, where mortality has been declining up to the late 1980s/late 1990s to level off (or increase) thereafter. In 2008-2012, most countries had mortality rates (age-standardized, world population) between 0.20 and 0.40/100,000 men and 0.20 and 0.60/100,000 women, the highest rates being in Latvia, Hungary, the Republic of Moldova and Israel (over 0.40/100,000) for men and in Ecuador, Colombia and Israel (over 0.60/100,000) for women. In most countries, a steady increase in the incidence of thyroid cancer (mainly papillary carcinomas) was observed in both sexes. The declines in thyroid cancer mortality reflect both variations in risk factor exposure and changes in the diagnosis and treatment of the disease, while the increases in the incidence are likely due to the increase in the detection of this neoplasm over the last few decades.