Avaliação ergonômica da cabine de um trator florestal

Pesquisas desenvolvidas por meio de avaliações ergonômicas e antropométricas contribuem a dar subs��dios para novos projetos, com base no dimensionamento de máquinas e equipamentos. Objetivou-se com o presente trabalho realizar uma análise antropométrica de trabalhadores que operam as máquinas de colheita de madeira e avaliar ergonomicamente a cabine do "Feller-Buncher", com a finalidade de levantar informações necessárias para futuras modificações a serem realizadas com base nos dados obtidos. As análises foram realizadas na empresa florestal Cenibra, localizada no Estado de Minas Gerais. A avaliação antropométrica dos operadores foi realizada por dois conjuntos de medidas, na posição em p�� e sentado. Durante as avaliações ergonômicas e a mensuração do posicionamento dos órgãos de comando e campo de vis��o foram determinadas as distâncias a partir do ponto de referência do assento (PRA) nas três dimens��es (x, y e z). De acordo com os resultados, pode-se concluir que há necessidade de melhorias ergonômicas no assento, controle, painel de controle, simbologia de comandos, mostradores e luzes de advertência.

Mass spectrometry improvement on an high current ion implanter

The development of accurate mass spectrometry, enabling the identification of all the ions extracted from the ion source in a high current implanter is described. The spectrometry system uses two signals (x-y graphic), one proportional to the magnetic field (x-axes), taken from the high-voltage potential with an optic fiber system, and the other proportional to the beam current intensity (y-axes), taken from a beam-stop. The ion beam mass register in a mass spectrum of all the elements magnetically analyzed with the same radius and defined by a pair of analyzing slits as a function of their beam intensity is presented. The developed system uses a PC to control the displaying of the extracted beam mass spectrum, and also recording of all data acquired for posterior analysis. The operator uses a LabView code that enables the interfacing between an I/O board and the ion implanter. The experimental results from an ion implantation experiment are shown. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Ruthenium(II) Arene Complexes Bearing Tris(pyrazolyl)methanesulfonate Capping Ligands.Electrochemistry, Spectroscopic, and X-ray Structural Characterization

Novel [Ru(L)(Tpms)]Cl and [Ru(L)(Tpms(Ph))]Cl complexes (L = p-cymene, benzene, or hexamethylbenzene, Tpms = tris(pyrazolyl)-methanesulfonate, Tpms(Ph) = tris(3-phenylpyrazoly)methanesulfonate) have been prepared by reaction of [Ru(L)(mu-Cl)(2)](2) with Li[Tpms] and Li[Tpms(Ph)], respectively. [Ru(p-cymene)(Tpms)]BF4 has been synthesized through a metathetic reaction of [Ru(p-cymene)(Tpms)]Cl with AgBF4. [RuCl(cod)(Tpms)] (cod = 1,5-cyclooctadiene) and [RuCl(cod)(Tpms(Ph))] are also reported, being obtained by reaction of [RuCl2(cod)(MeCN)(2)] with Li[Tpms] and Li[Tpms(Ph)], respectively. The structures of the complexes and the coordination modes of the ligands have been established by IR, NMR, and single-crystal X-ray diffraction (for [RuL(Tpms)]X (L = p-cymene or HMB, X = Cl; L = p-cymene, X = BF4)) studies. Electrochemical studies showed that each complex undergoes a single-electron R-II -> R-III oxidation at a potential measured by cyclic voltammetry, allowing to compare the electron-donor characters of the tris(pyrazolyl)methanesulfonate and arene ligands, and to estimate, for the first time, the values of the Lever E-L ligand parameter for Tmps(Ph), HMB, and cod.

Angioplastia Coronária no Enfarte Agudo do Miocárdio: Impacto do Timing da Revascularização na Alternância da Onda Ta

Encontra-se bem estabelecido que, na abordagem terap��utica do enfarte agudo do miocárdio (EAM), a trombólise e a angioplastia coronária percutânea (ACTP) permitem diminuir a mortalidade e melhorar o prognóstico, sendo esse benefício tanto maior quanto menor o tempo decorrido entre o evento isquémico e o procedimento terap��utico. No entanto, não está ainda estabelecido qual o impacto que o atraso da implementação dessas terap��uticas tem no desenvolvimento de taquidisritmias ventriculares e por consequência no resultado da alternância da onda T(TWA), que representa um método reconhecido para avaliação da vulnerabilidade ventricular às referidas arritmias. Objectivo: Analisar os resultados da TWA por microvoltagem numa população submetida a ACTP na sequência de EAM e avaliar a influência do timing de revascularização miocárdica nos resultados da TWA. Métodos: Estudámos 79 doentes (67 do sexo masculino; 57 ± 11 anos) consecutivos, admitidos por EAM e sujeitos a revascularização miocárdica por ACTP durante o internamento. A TWA foi avaliada utilizando um aparelho da HeartTwave System (Cambridge Heart, Inc., Bedford, Massachusetts) nos 30 dias p��s-EAM. Durante a realização de uma prova de esforço em tapete rolante com protocolo manual, com o objectivo de elevar a frequência cardíaca até aos 110 batimentos por minuto, realizou-se o registo electrocardiográfico através da aplicação de sete eléctrodos standard e outros sete eléctrodos sensores de alta-resolução, especialmente concebidos para redução do «ruído», dispostos segundo as derivações ortogonais de Frank(X,Y, Z). A TWA foi considerada positiva quando se verificou a presença de alternância da onda T de magnitude ³ 1,9 μV de forma consistente e mantida (> 1 minuto), com início para frequências cardíacas < 110 batimentos/minuto ou quando esta alternância se verificou em doentes em repouso. Foi considerada negativa quando se conseguiu obter dados sem artefactos durante pelo menos um minuto, com frequências > 105 batimentos/minuto, sem atingir critério de positividade e indeterminada se não podia ser classificada como positiva ou negativa. Foram excluídos doentes com EAM ou revascularização miocárdica (cirúrgica ou percutânea) prévios, os que apresentavam insuficiência cardíaca congestiva, com fibrilhação auricular, > 10 extrassístoles por minuto, pacemaker definitivo, bradicárdia < 40 bpm, complexos QRS com duração > 130 ms ou sob terap��utica anti-arrítmica. Considerámos como marcador de risco para a ocorrência de eventos arrítmicos ventriculares malignos a presença de TWA positiva ou indeterminada. (TWA «nãonegativa»). Os resultados da TWA foram comparados entre o grupo de doentes submetidos a ACTP nas primeiras 24 horas p��s-EAM (Grupo A; n = 45) e o grupo de doentes submetidos a ACTP > 24 horas p��s-EAM. (Grupo B; n = 34) Resultados: A TWA foi positiva em 16 doentes (20,2%) e negativa em 56 (70,9%). Em 7 casos (8,9%), o resultado do teste foi considerado indeterminado. A TWA foi «não-negativa» em 29,1% da população. No grupo A a TWA foi “não-negativa” em 9 doentes (20 %) (6 com TWA positiva e três com TWA indeterminada) e negativa em 36 doentes (80 %) e no grupo B foi «não-negativa» em 14 doentes (41%) (10 com TWA positiva e quatro com TWA indeterminada) e negativa em 20 (59 %) (p < 0,05). Não se encontraram diferenças entre os dois grupos no que respeita à fracção de ejecção ventricular esquerda. No seguimento até aos 60 dias ap��s a alta hospitalar não foram documentados eventos arrítmicos ventriculares, s��ncopes ou óbito. Foram reinternados cinco doentes (7 %) por recorrênciade angor. Conclus��es: Numa população de sobreviventes de EAM encontrámos uma prevalência de TWA não negativa de 29 %, apesar da revascularização miocárdica com ACTP. A ACTP, quando efectuada nas primeiras 24 horas ap��s o início do EAM, reduz de forma significativa o número de doentes com TWA não negativa,sugerindo que esta intervenção precoce poderá baixar o risco arrítmico destes doentes e influenciar favoravelmente o prognóstico p��s-EAM. O impacto da morte s��bita na mortalidade p��s-EAM justifica estudos prospectivos de maiores dimens��es

Observaciones y simulaciones de cúmulos de galaxias

Con el desarrollo de este proyecto se pretende realizar un estudio detallado de las diferentes propiedades de los cúmulos de galaxias previéndose un amplio espectro de análisis que incluye la realización de simulaciones numéricas, observaciones espectroscópicas de galaxias en cúmulos y estudios de la emisión X proveniente del gas intra-cúmulo. Las simulaciones numéricas serán realizadas utilizando códigos de integración hidrodinámicos cosmológicos que permiten seguir la evolución dinámica de sistemas de gas y materia no-colisional en un contexto cosmológico. (...) Las observaciones espectroscópicas de galaxias en cúmulos permiten un detallado estudio de la dinámica de los cúmulos. Dichas observaciones serán realizadas en CASLEO (Centro Astronómico El Leoncito) las cuales se adicionarán al material ya existente, con el cual se podrán realizar estimas de dispersión de velocidades y estudios de subestructura entre otros estudios. En base a las imágenes p��blicas provenientes del satélite ROSAT se realizarán estudios detallados de las propiedades del gas caliente, permitiendo análisis de morfología y temperatura del gas intracúmulo y proporcionando valiosa información sobre el estado dinámico de los cúmulos. Uno de los objetivos centrales de este proyecto consiste en la confrontación entre las observaciones de cúmulos (tanto en el rango óptico como en rayos X) y las simulaciones numéricas. Estos estudios permitirán mejorar el conocimiento sobre diferentes propiedades de los sistemas de galaxias, los procesos de formación de estructuras y las dependencias con los parámetros cosmológicos básicos. Otros de los aspectos vinculados a los cúmulos de galaxias que se prevé abordar está asociado al hecho que estos son excelentes trazadores de la estructura en gran escala del universo, por lo cual se prevé la aplicación de diferentes técnicas estadísticas a grandes catálogos de cúmulos.

Contribuições à teoria da genética em populações

1) O equilíbrio em populações, inicialmente compostas de vários genotipos depende essencialmente de três fatores: a modalidade de reprodução e a relativa viabilidade e fertilidade dos genotipos, e as freqüências iniciais. 2) Temos que distinguir a) reprodução por cruzamento livre quando qualquer indivíduo da população pode ser cruzado com qualquer outro; b) reprodução por autofecundação, quando cada indivíduo é reproduzido por uma autofecundação; c) finalmente a reprodução mista, isto é, os casos intermediários onde os indivíduos s��o em parte cruzados, em parte autofecundados. 3) Populações heterozigotas para um par de gens e sem seleção. Em populações com reprodução cruzada se estabelece na primeira geração um equilíbrio entre os três genotipos, segundo a chamada regra de Hardy- Weinberg. Inicial : AA/u + Aa/v aa/u = 1 Equilibirio (u + v/2)² + u + v/2 ( w + v/2) + (w + v/2)² = p2 + 2 p o. q o. + q²o = 1 Em populações com autofecundação o equilíbrio será atingido quando estiverem presentes apenas os dois homozigotos, e uma fórmula é dada que permite calcular quantas gerações s��o necessárias para atingir aproximadamente este resultado. Finalmente, em populações com reprodução mista, obtemos um equilíbrio com valores intermediários, conforme Quadro 1. Frequência Genotipo Inicial mº Geração Final AA u u + 2m-1v / 2m+1 u + 1/2v Aa v 2/ 2m+2 v - aa w w + 2m - 1/ 2m + 1 v w + 1/2 v 4) Os índices de sobrevivencia. Para poder chegar a fórmulas matemáticas simples, é necessário introduzir índices de sobrevivência para medir a viabilidade e fertilidade dos homozigotos, em relação à sobrevivência dos heterozigotos. Designamos a sobrevivência absoluta de cada um dos três genotipos com x, y e z, e teremos então: x [ A A] : y [ Aa] : z [ aa] = x/y [ A A] : [ Aa] : z/ y [aa] = R A [ AA] : 1 [Aa] : Ra [aa] É evidente que os índices R poderão ter qualquer valor desde zero, quando haverá uma eliminação completa dos homozigotos, até infinito quando os heterozigotos serão completamente eliminados. Os termos (1 -K) de Haldane e (1 -S) ou W de Wright não têm esta propriedade matemática, podendo variar apenas entre zero e um. É ainda necessário distinguir índices parciais, de acordo com a marcha da eliminação nas diferentes fases da ontogenia dos indivíduos. Teremos que distinguir em primeiro lugar entre a eliminação durante a fase vegetativa e a eliminação na fase reprodutiva. Estas duas componentes s��o ligadas pela relação matemática. R - RV . RR 5) Populações com reprodução cruzada e eliminação. - Considerações gerais. a) O equilibrio final, independente da freqüência inicial dos genes e dos genotipos para valores da sobrevivência diferentes de um, é atingido quando os gens e os genotipos estão presentes nas proporções seguintes: (Quadro 2). po / qo = 1- ro / 1-Ra [AA] (1 - Ro)² . Rav [ Aa] = 2(1 - Ra) ( 1 - Ra) [a a} = ( 1 - Ra)² . RaA b) Fórmulas foram dadas que permitem calcular as freqüências dos genotipos em qualquer geração das populações. Não foi tentado obter fórmulas gerais, por processos de integração, pois trata-se de um processo descontínuo, com saltos de uma e outra geração, e de duração curta. 6) Populações com reprodução cruzada e eliminação. Podemos distinguir os seguintes casos: a) Heterosis - (Quadro 3 e Fig. 1). Ra < 1; Ra < 1 Inicial : Final : p (A)/q(a) -> 1-ra/1-ra = positivo/zero = infinito Os dois gens e assim os três genotipos zigóticos permanecem na população. Quando as freqüências iniciais forem maiores do que as do equilíbrio elas serão diminuidas, e quando forem menores, serão aumentadas. b) Gens recessivos letais ou semiletais. (Quadro 1 e Fig. 2). O equilíbrio será atingido quando o gen, que causa a redução da viabilidade dos homozigotos, fôr eliminado da população. . / c) Gens parcialmente dominantes semiletais. (Quadro 5 e Fig. 3). Rª ; Oz Ra < 1 Inicial : Equilibrio biológico Equilíbrio Matemático pa(A)/q(a) -> positivo /zero -> 1- Rq/ 1-Ra = positivo/negativo d) Genes incompatíveis. Ra > 1 ; Ra > 1; Ra > Ra Equílibrio/biológico p (A)/ q(a) -> positivo/zero Equilibrio matemático -> positivo/ zero -> zero/negativo -> 1-Ra/1 - Ra = negativo/negativo Nestes dois casos devemos distinguir entre o significado matemático e biológico. A marcha da eliminação não pode chegar até o equilíbrio matemático quando um dos gens alcança antes a freqüência zero, isto é, desaparece. Nos três casos teremos sempre uma eliminação relativamente rápida de um dos gens «e com isso do homozigoto respectivo e dos heterozigotòs. e) Foram discutidos mais dois casos especiais: eliminação reprodutiva diferencial dos dois valores do sexo feminino e masculino, -e gens para competição gametofítica. (Quadros 6 e 7 e Figs. 4 a 6). 7) População com autofecundação e seleção. O equilíbrio será atingido quando os genotipos estiverem presentes nas seguintes proporções: (Quadro 8); [AA] ( 0,5 - Ra). R AV [Aa] = 4. ( 0,5 - Ra) . (0.5 -R A) [aa] ( 0,5 - R A) . Rav Também foram dadas fórmulas que permitem calcular as proporções genotípicas em cada geração e a marcha geral da eliminação dos genotipos. 8)Casos especiais. Podemos notar que o termo (0,5 -R) nas fórmulas para as populações autofecundadas ocupa mais ou menos a mesma importância do que o termo (1-R) nas fórmulas para as populações cruzadas. a) Heterosis. (Quadro 9 e Fig. 7). Quando RA e Ra têm valores entre 0 e 0,5, obtemos o seguinte resultado: No equilíbrio ambos os gens estão presentes e os três heterozigotos s��o mais freqüentes do que os homozigotos. b) Em todos os demais casos, quando RA e Ra forem iguais ou maiores do que 0,5, o equilíbrio é atingido quando estão representados na população apenas os homozigotos mais viáveis e férteis. (Quadro 10). 9) Foram discutidos os efeitos de alterações dos valores da sobrevivência (Fig. 9), do modo de reprodução (Fig. 10) e das freqüências iniciais dos gens (Fig. 8). 10) Algumas aplicações à genética aplicada. Depois de uma discussão mais geral, dois problemas principais foram tratados: a) A homogeneização: Ficou demonstrado que a reprodução por cruzamento livre representa um mecanismo muito ineficiente, e que se deve empregar sempre ou a autofecundação ou pelo menos uma reprodução mista com a maior freqüência possível de acasalamentos consanguíneos. Fórmulas e dados (Quadro 11 e 12), permitem a determinação do número de gerações necessárias para obter um grau razoável de homozigotia- b) Heterosis. Existem dois processos, para a obtenção de um alto grau de heterozigotia e com isso de heterosis: a) O método clássico do "inbreeding and outbreeding". b) O método novo das populações balançadas, baseado na combinação de gens que quando homozigotos dão urna menor sobrevivência do que quando heterozigotos. 11) Algumas considerações sobre a teoria de evolução: a) Heterosis. Os gens com efeito "heterótico", isto é, nos casos onde os heterozigotos s mais viáveis e férteis, do que os homozigotos, oferecem um mecanismo especial de evolução, pois nestes casos a freqüência dos gens, apesar de seu efeito negativo na fase homozigota, tem a sua freqüência aumentada até que seja atingido o valor do equilíbrio. b) Gens letais e semiletais recessivos. Foi demonstrado que estes gens devem ser eliminados automáticamente das populações. Porém, ao contrário do esperado, não s raros por exemplo em milho e em Drosophila, gens que até hoje foram classificados nesta categoria. Assim, um estudo detalhado torna-se necessário para resolver se os heterozigotos em muitos destes casos não serão de maior sobrevivência do que ambos os homozigotos, isto é, que se trata realmente de genes heteróticos. c) Gens semiletais parcialmente dominantes. Estes gens serão sempre eliminados nas populações, e de fato eles s��o encontrados apenas raramente. d) Gens incompatíveis. S��o também geralmente eliminados das populações. Apenas em casos especiais eles podem ter importância na evolução, representando um mecanismo de isolamento.

Bases para o estudo da genética de populações dos Hymenoptera em geral e dos Apinae sociais em particular

This paper deals with problems on population genetics in Hymenoptera and particularly in social Apidae. 1) The studies on populations of Hymenoptera were made according to the two basic types of reproduction: endogamy and panmixia. The populations of social Apinae have a mixed method of reproduction with higher percentage of panmixia and a lower of endogamy. This is shown by the following a) males can enter any hive in swarming time; b) males of Meliponini are expelled from hives which does not need them, and thus, are forced to look for some other place; c) Meliponini males were seen powdering themselves with pollen, thus becoming more acceptable in any other hive. The panmixia is not complete owing to the fact that the density of the breeding population as very low, even in the more frequent species as low as about 2 females and 160 males per reproductive area. We adopted as selection values (or survival indices) the expressions according to Brieger (1948,1950) which may be summarised as follows; a population: p2AA + ²pq Aa + q2aa became after selection: x p2AA + 2pq Aa + z q²aa. For alge-braics facilities Brieger divided the three selective values by y giving thus: x/y p2 AA + y/y 2 pq Aa + z/y q²aa. He called x/y of RA and z/y of Ra, that are survival or selective index, calculated in relation to the heterozygote. In our case all index were calculated in relation to the heterozygote, including the ones for haploid males; thus we have: RA surveval index of genotype AA Ra surveval index of genotype aa R'A surveval index of genotype A R'a surveval index of genotype a 1 surveval index of genotype Aa The index R'A ande R'a were equalized to RA and Ra, respectively, for facilities in the conclusions. 2) Panmitic populations of Hymenoptera, barring mutations, migrations and selection, should follow the Hardy-Weinberg law, thus all gens will be present in the population in the inicial frequency (see Graphifc 1). 3) Heterotic genes: If mutation for heterotic gene ( 1 > RA > Ra) occurs, an equilibrium will be reached in a population when: P = R A + Ra - 2R²a _____________ (9) 2(R A + Ra - R²A - R²a q = R A + Ra - 2R²A _____________ (10) 2(R A + Ra - R²A - R²a A heterotic gene in an hymenopteran population may be maintained without the aid of new mutation only if the survival index of the most viable mutant (RA) does not exced the limiting value given by the formula: R A = 1 + √1+Ra _________ 4 If RA has a value higher thah the one permitted by the formula, then only the more viable gene will remain present in the population (see Graphic 10). The only direct proof for heterotic genes in Hymenoptera was given by Mackensen and Roberts, who obtained offspring from Apis mellefera L. queens fertilized by their own sons. Such inbreeding resulted in a rapid loss of vigor the colony; inbred lines intercrossed gave a high hybrid vigor. Other fats correlated with the "heterosis" problem are; a) In a colony M. quadrifasciata Lep., which suffered severely from heat, the percentage of deths omong males was greater .than among females; b) Casteel and Phillips had shown that in their samples (Apis melifera L). the males had 7 times more abnormalities tian the workers (see Quadros IV to VIII); c) just after emerging the males have great variation, but the older ones show a variation equal to that of workers; d) The tongue lenght of males of Apis mellifera L., of Bombus rubicundus Smith (Quadro X), of Melipona marginata Lep. (Quadro XI), and of Melipona quadrifasciata Lep. Quadro IX, show greater variationthan that of workers of the respective species. If such variation were only caused by subviables genes a rapid increasse of homozigoty for the most viable alleles should be expected; then, these .wild populations, supposed to be in equilibrium, could .not show such variability among males. Thus we conclude that heterotic genes have a grat importance in these cases. 4) By means of mathematical models, we came to the conclusion tht isolating genes (Ra ^ Ra > 1), even in the case of mutations with more adaptability, have only the opor-tunity of survival when the population number is very low (thus the frequency of the gene in the breeding population will be large just after its appearence). A pair of such alleles can only remain present in a population when in border regions of two races or subspecies. For more details see Graphics 5 to 8. 5) Sex-limited genes affecting only females, are of great importance toHymenoptera, being subject to the same limits and formulas as diploid panmitic populations (see formulas 12 and 13). The following examples of these genes were given: a) caste-determining genes in the genus Melipona; b) genes permiting an easy response of females to differences in feeding in almost all social Hymenoptera; c) two genes, found in wild populations, one in Trigona (Plebéia) mosquito F. SMITH (quadro XII) and other in Melipona marginata marginata LEP. (Quadro XIII, colonies 76 and 56) showing sex-limited effects. Sex-limited genes affecting only males do not contribute to the plasticity or genie reserve in hymenopteran populations (see formula 14). 6) The factor time (life span) in Hymenoptera has a particular importance for heterotic genes. Supposing one year to be the time unit and a pair of heterotic genes with respective survival indice equal to RA = 0, 90 and Ra = 0,70 to be present; then if the life time of a population is either one or two years, only the more viable gene will remain present (see formula 11). If the species has a life time of three years, then both alleles will be maintained. Thus we conclude that in specis with long lif-time, the heterotic genes have more importance, and should be found more easily. 7) The colonies of social Hymenoptera behave as units in competition, thus in the studies of populations one must determine the survival index, of these units which may be subdivided in indice for egg-laying, for adaptive value of the queen, for working capacity of workers, etc. 8) A study of endogamic hymenopteran populations, reproduced by sister x brother mating (fig. 2), lead us to the following conclusions: a) without selection, a population, heterozygous for one pair of alleles, will consist after some generations (theoretically after an infinite number of generation) of females AA fecundated with males A and females aa fecundated with males a (see Quadro I). b) Even in endogamic population there is the theoretical possibility of the presence of heterotic genes, at equilibrium without the aid of new mutations (see Graphics 11 and 12), but the following! conditions must be satisfied: I - surveval index of both homozygotes (RA e Ra) should be below 0,75 (see Graphic 13); II - The most viable allele must riot exced the less viable one by more than is permited by the following formula (Pimentel Gomes 1950) (see Gra-fic 14) : 4 R5A + 8 Ra R4A - 4 Ra R³A (Ra - 1) R²A - - R²a (4 R²a + 4 Ra - 1) R A + 2 R³a < o Considering these two conditions, the existance of heterotic genes in endogamic populations of Hymenoptera \>ecames very improbable though not - impossible. 9) Genie mutation offects more hymenopteran than diploid populations. Thus we have for lethal genes in diploid populations: u = q2, and in Hymenoptera: u = s, being u the mutation ratio and s the frequency of the mutant in the male population. 10) Three factors, important to competition among species of Meliponini were analysed: flying capacity of workers, food gathering capacity of workers, egg-laying of the queen. In this connection we refer to the variability of the tongue lenght observed in colonies from several localites, to the method of transporting the pollen in the stomach, from some pots (Melliponi-ni storage alveolus) to others (e. g. in cases of pillage), and to the observation that the species with the most populous hives are almost always the most frequent ones also. 11) Several defensive ways used for Meliponini to avoid predation are cited, but special references are made upon the camouflage of both hive (fig. 5) and hive entrance (fig. 4) and on the mimetism (see list in page ). Also under the same heading we described the method of Lestrimelitta for pillage. 12) As mechanisms important for promoting genetic plasticity of hymenopteran species we cited: a) cytological variations and b) genie reserve. As to the former, duplications and numerical variations of chromosomes were studied. Diprion simile ATC was cited as example for polyploidy. Apis mellife-ra L. (n •= 16) also sugests polyploid origen since: a) The genus Melipona, which belongs to a" related tribe, presents in all species so far studied n = 9 chromosomes and b) there occurs formation of dyads in the firt spermatocyte division. It is su-gested that the origin of the sex-chromosome of Apis mellifera It. may be related to the possible origin of diplo-tetraploidy in this species. With regards to the genie reserve, several possible types of mutants were discussed. They were classified according to their survival indices; the heterotic and neutral mutants must be considered as more important for the genie reserve. 13) The mean radius from a mother to a daghter colony was estimated as 100 meters. Since the Meliponini hives swarm only once a year we may take 100 meters a year as the average dispersion of female Meliponini in ocordance to data obtained from Trigona (tetragonisca) jaty F. SMITH and Melipona marginata LEP., while other species may give different values. For males the flying distance was roughly estimated to be 10 times that for females. A review of the bibliography on Meliponini swarm was made (pg. 43 to 47) and new facts added. The population desity (breeding population) corresponds in may species of Meliponini to one male and one female per 10.000 square meters. Apparently the males are more frequent than the females, because there are sometimes many thousands, of males in a swarm; but for the genie frequency the individuals which have descendants are the ones computed. In the case of Apini and Meliponini, only one queen per hive and the males represented by. the spermatozoos in its spermateca are computed. In Meliponini only one male mate with the queen, while queens of Apis mellijera L. are fecundated by an average of about 1, 5 males. (Roberts, 1944). From the date cited, one clearly sees that, on the whole, populations of wild social bees (Meliponini) are so small that the Sewall Wright effect may become of great importance. In fact applying the Wright's formula: f = ( 1/aN♂ + 1/aN♀) (1 - 1/aN♂ + 1/aN♀) which measures the fixation and loss of genes per generation, we see that the fixation or loss of genes is of about 7% in the more frequent species, and rarer species about 11%. The variation in size, tergite color, background color, etc, of Melipona marginata Lep. is atributed to this genetic drift. A detail, important to the survival of Meliponini species, is the Constance of their breeding population. This Constance is due to the social organization, i. e., to the care given to the reproductive individuals (the queen with its sperm pack), to the way of swarming, to the food storage intended to control variations of feeding supply, etc. 14) Some species of the Meliponini are adapted to various ecological conditions and inhabit large geographical areas (e. g. T. (Tetragonisca jaty F. SMITH), and Trigona (Nanno-trigona testaceicornis LEP.) while others are limited to narrow regions with special ecological conditions (e. g. M. fuscata me-lanoventer SCHWARZ). Other species still, within the same geographical region, profit different ecological conditions, as do M. marginata LEP. and M. quadrifasciata LEP. The geographical distribution of Melipona quadrifasciata LEP. is different according to the subspecies: a) subsp anthidio-des LEP. (represented in Fig. 7 by black squares) inhabits a region fron the North of the S. Paulo State to Northeastern Brazil, ,b) subspecies quadrifasciata LEP., (marked in Fig. 7 with black triangles) accurs from the South of S. Paulo State to the middle of the State of Rio Grande do Sul (South Brazil). In the margined region between these two areas of distribution, hi-brid colonies were found (Fig. 7, white circles); they are shown with more details in fig. 8, while the zone of hybridization is roughly indicated in fig. 9 (gray zone). The subspecies quadrifasciata LEP., has 4 complete yellow bands on the abdominal tergites while anthidioides LEP. has interrupted ones. This character is determined by one or two genes and gives different adaptative properties to the subspecies. Figs. 10 shows certains meteorological isoclines which have aproximately the same configuration as the limits of the hybrid zone, suggesting different climatic adaptabilities for both genotypes. The exis-tance of a border zone between the areas of both subspecies, where were found a high frequency of hybrids, is explained as follows: being each subspecies adapted to a special climatic zone, we may suppose a poor adaptation of either one in the border region, which is also a region of intermediate climatic conditions. Thus, the hybrids, having a combination of the parent qualities, will be best adapted to the transition zone. Thus, the hybrids will become heterotic and an equilibrium will be reached with all genotypes present in the population in the border region.

Identification and analysis of functional elements in 1% of the human genome by the ENCODE pilot project.

We report the generation and analysis of functional data from multiple, diverse experiments performed on a targeted 1% of the human genome as part of the pilot phase of the ENCODE Project. These data have been further integrated and augmented by a number of evolutionary and computational analyses. Together, our results advance the collective knowledge about human genome function in several major areas. First, our studies provide convincing evidence that the genome is pervasively transcribed, such that the majority of its bases can be found in primary transcripts, including non-protein-coding transcripts, and those that extensively overlap one another. Second, systematic examination of transcriptional regulation has yielded new understanding about transcription start sites, including their relationship to specific regulatory sequences and features of chromatin accessibility and histone modification. Third, a more sophisticated view of chromatin structure has emerged, including its inter-relationship with DNA replication and transcriptional regulation. Finally, integration of these new sources of information, in particular with respect to mammalian evolution based on inter- and intra-species sequence comparisons, has yielded new mechanistic and evolutionary insights concerning the functional landscape of the human genome. Together, these studies are defining a path for pursuit of a more comprehensive characterization of human genome function.

Genetic variants in novel pathways influence blood pressure and cardiovascular disease risk.

Blood pressure is a heritable trait influenced by several biological pathways and responsive to environmental stimuli. Over one billion people worldwide have hypertension (≥140 mm Hg systolic blood pressure or  ≥90 mm Hg diastolic blood pressure). Even small increments in blood pressure are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular events. This genome-wide association study of systolic and diastolic blood pressure, which used a multi-stage design in 200,000 individuals of European descent, identified sixteen novel loci: six of these loci contain genes previously known or suspected to regulate blood pressure (GUCY1A3-GUCY1B3, NPR3-C5orf23, ADM, FURIN-FES, GOSR2, GNAS-EDN3); the other ten provide new clues to blood pressure physiology. A genetic risk score based on 29 genome-wide significant variants was associated with hypertension, left ventricular wall thickness, stroke and coronary artery disease, but not kidney disease or kidney function. We also observed associations with blood pressure in East Asian, South Asian and African ancestry individuals. Our findings provide new insights into the genetics and biology of blood pressure, and suggest potential novel therapeutic pathways for cardiovascular disease prevention.

LILRB2 interaction with HLA class I correlates with control of HIV-1 infection.

Natural progression of HIV-1 infection depends on genetic variation in the human major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I locus, and the CD8+ T cell response is thought to be a primary mechanism of this effect. However, polymorphism within the MHC may also alter innate immune activity against human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) by changing interactions of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I molecules with leukocyte immunoglobulin-like receptors (LILR), a group of immunoregulatory receptors mainly expressed on myelomonocytic cells including dendritic cells (DCs). We used previously characterized HLA allotype-specific binding capacities of LILRB1 and LILRB2 as well as data from a large cohort of HIV-1-infected individuals (N = 5126) to test whether LILR-HLA class I interactions influence viral load in HIV-1 infection. Our analyses in persons of European descent, the largest ethnic group examined, show that the effect of HLA-B alleles on HIV-1 control correlates with the binding strength between corresponding HLA-B allotypes and LILRB2 (p = 10(-2)). Moreover, overall binding strength of LILRB2 to classical HLA class I allotypes, defined by the HLA-A/B/C genotypes in each patient, positively associates with viral replication in the absence of therapy in patients of both European (p = 10(-11)-10(-9)) and African (p = 10(-5)-10(-3)) descent. This effect appears to be driven by variations in LILRB2 binding affinities to HLA-B and is independent of individual class I allelic effects that are not related to the LILRB2 function. Correspondingly, in vitro experiments suggest that strong LILRB2-HLA binding negatively affects antigen-presenting properties of DCs. Thus, we propose an impact of LILRB2 on HIV-1 disease outcomes through altered regulation of DCs by LILRB2-HLA engagement.

Clinical characteristics, prognosis, and treatment of pelvic cryptorchid seminoma.

PURPOSE: To analyze the clinical characteristics, prognosis, and treatment outcome of pelvic cryptorchid seminoma (PCS), and to determine whether whole abdominal-pelvic irradiation for Stage I disease is necessary. METHODS AND MATERIALS: From 1958 to 1991, 60 patients with PCS were treated at the Cancer Hospital of Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing. They presented with a lower abdominal mass and showed a predominance for the right side. A high proportion of patients with PCS [26 of 60 (43%)] had metastatic disease, compared to 20% of those with scrotal seminoma, and there was a tendency toward a higher frequency of pelvic nodal metastases. There were 34 Stage I, 6 Stage IIA, 11 Stage IIB, 5 Stage III, and 4 Stage IV patients. Of these 60 patients, 56 underwent laparotomy with or without cryptorchiectomy (37 radical orchiectomy, 7 partial orchiectomy, and 12 biopsy of the primary or cervical node), and 4 cervical node biopsy only. All patients were further treated with radiotherapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of both. Patients with Stage I and II disease received radiotherapy, whereas patients with Stage III and IV were treated with chemotherapy. RESULTS: The overall and disease-free survivals at 5 and 10 years were 92% and 87%, and 88% and 84%, respectively. The 5- and 10-year survivals were 100% for Stage I, 94% and 87% for Stage II, and 56% and 42% for Stage III/IV, respectively (p < 0.05). Volume of irradiation, i.e., whole abdominal-pelvic radiotherapy (10 patients), versus hockey-stick encompassing paraaortic, ipsilateral iliac nodes and the primary tumor or tumor bed (17) did not influence outcome in Stage I patients. Five patients relapsed within 2-12 years after treatment, and four of these patients were successfully salvaged. Four patients developed a second malignant tumor and died. CONCLUSION: Stage I and II PCS can be adequately controlled by radiotherapy regardless of the surgical procedure. Whole abdominal-pelvic irradiation for Stage I and IIA disease is not required, and fields can be limited to the paraaortic, ipsilateral iliac nodes and primary tumor or tumor bed. We recommend platinum-based chemotherapy for Stage IIB-IV PCS.

Blood pressure loci identified with a gene-centric array.

Raised blood pressure (BP) is a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Previous studies have identified 47 distinct genetic variants robustly associated with BP, but collectively these explain only a few percent of the heritability for BP phenotypes. To find additional BP loci, we used a bespoke gene-centric array to genotype an independent discovery sample of 25,118 individuals that combined hypertensive case-control and general population samples. We followed up four SNPs associated with BP at our p < 8.56 × 10(-7) study-specific significance threshold and six suggestively associated SNPs in a further 59,349 individuals. We identified and replicated a SNP at LSP1/TNNT3, a SNP at MTHFR-NPPB independent (r(2) = 0.33) of previous reports, and replicated SNPs at AGT and ATP2B1 reported previously. An analysis of combined discovery and follow-up data identified SNPs significantly associated with BP at p < 8.56 × 10(-7) at four further loci (NPR3, HFE, NOS3, and SOX6). The high number of discoveries made with modest genotyping effort can be attributed to using a large-scale yet targeted genotyping array and to the development of a weighting scheme that maximized power when meta-analyzing results from samples ascertained with extreme phenotypes, in combination with results from nonascertained or population samples. Chromatin immunoprecipitation and transcript expression data highlight potential gene regulatory mechanisms at the MTHFR and NOS3 loci. These results provide candidates for further study to help dissect mechanisms affecting BP and highlight the utility of studying SNPs and samples that are independent of those studied previously even when the sample size is smaller than that in previous studies.

Blood pressure loci identified with a gene-centric array.

Raised blood pressure (BP) is a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Previous studies have identified 47 distinct genetic variants robustly associated with BP, but collectively these explain only a few percent of the heritability for BP phenotypes. To find additional BP loci, we used a bespoke gene-centric array to genotype an independent discovery sample of 25,118 individuals that combined hypertensive case-control and general population samples. We followed up four SNPs associated with BP at our p < 8.56 × 10(-7) study-specific significance threshold and six suggestively associated SNPs in a further 59,349 individuals. We identified and replicated a SNP at LSP1/TNNT3, a SNP at MTHFR-NPPB independent (r(2) = 0.33) of previous reports, and replicated SNPs at AGT and ATP2B1 reported previously. An analysis of combined discovery and follow-up data identified SNPs significantly associated with BP at p < 8.56 × 10(-7) at four further loci (NPR3, HFE, NOS3, and SOX6). The high number of discoveries made with modest genotyping effort can be attributed to using a large-scale yet targeted genotyping array and to the development of a weighting scheme that maximized power when meta-analyzing results from samples ascertained with extreme phenotypes, in combination with results from nonascertained or population samples. Chromatin immunoprecipitation and transcript expression data highlight potential gene regulatory mechanisms at the MTHFR and NOS3 loci. These results provide candidates for further study to help dissect mechanisms affecting BP and highlight the utility of studying SNPs and samples that are independent of those studied previously even when the sample size is smaller than that in previous studies.

Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy.

In 2008 we published the first set of guidelines for standardizing research in autophagy. Since then, research on this topic has continued to accelerate, and many new scientists have entered the field. Our knowledge base and relevant new technologies have also been expanding. Accordingly, it is important to update these guidelines for monitoring autophagy in different organisms. Various reviews have described the range of assays that have been used for this purpose. Nevertheless, there continues to be confusion regarding acceptable methods to measure autophagy, especially in multicellular eukaryotes. A key point that needs to be emphasized is that there is a difference between measurements that monitor the numbers or volume of autophagic elements (e.g., autophagosomes or autolysosomes) at any stage of the autophagic process vs. those that measure flux through the autophagy pathway (i.e., the complete process); thus, a block in macroautophagy that results in autophagosome accumulation needs to be differentiated from stimuli that result in increased autophagic activity, defined as increased autophagy induction coupled with increased delivery to, and degradation within, lysosomes (in most higher eukaryotes and some protists such as Dictyostelium) or the vacuole (in plants and fungi). In other words, it is especially important that investigators new to the field understand that the appearance of more autophagosomes does not necessarily equate with more autophagy. In fact, in many cases, autophagosomes accumulate because of a block in trafficking to lysosomes without a concomitant change in autophagosome biogenesis, whereas an increase in autolysosomes may reflect a reduction in degradative activity. Here, we present a set of guidelines for the selection and interpretation of methods for use by investigators who aim to examine macroautophagy and related processes, as well as for reviewers who need to provide realistic and reasonable critiques of papers that are focused on these processes. These guidelines are not meant to be a formulaic set of rules, because the appropriate assays depend in part on the question being asked and the system being used. In addition, we emphasize that no individual assay is guaranteed to be the most appropriate one in every situation, and we strongly recommend the use of multiple assays to monitor autophagy. In these guidelines, we consider these various methods of assessing autophagy and what information can, or cannot, be obtained from them. Finally, by discussing the merits and limits of particular autophagy assays, we hope to encourage technical innovation in the field.