222Radon flux map for Europe in netCDF format

A high-resolution 222Radon (222Rn) flux map for Europe was developed, based on a parameterization of 222Rn production and transport in the soil. The 222Rn exhalation rate is parameterized based on soil properties, uranium content, and modelled soil moisture from two different land-surface reanalysis data sets. Spatial variations in exhalation rates are primarily determined by the uranium content of the soil, but also influenced by soil texture and local water table depth. Temporal variations are related to soil moisture variations as the molecular diffusion in the unsaturated soil zone depends on available air-filled pore space. Monthly 222Rn exhalation rates from European soils were calculated with a nominal spatial resolution of 0.083° x 0.083°. The two realizations of the 222Rn flux map, based on the different soil moisture data sets, both realistically reproduce the observed seasonality in the fluxes but yield considerable differences for absolute flux values. The mean 222Rn flux from soils in Europe is estimated to be 10 mBq/m**2/s (ERA-Interim/Land soil moisture) or 15 mBq/m**2/s (GLDAS-Noah soil moisture) for the period 2006-2010. The 222Rn flux maps for Europe are available for the application in atmospheric transport studies, e.g to evaluate the performance of atmospheric transport models.

Axis Mapping: The Estimation of Surface Orientations and its Applications in Vehicle Localization and Structural Geology

The map representation of an environment should be selected based on its intended application. For example, a geometrically accurate map describing the Euclidean space of an environment is not necessarily the best choice if only a small subset its features are required. One possible subset is the orientations of the flat surfaces in the environment, represented by a special parameterization of normal vectors called axes. Devoid of positional information, the entries of an axis map form a non-injective relationship with the flat surfaces in the environment, which results in physically distinct flat surfaces being represented by a single axis. This drastically reduces the complexity of the map, but retains important information about the environment that can be used in meaningful applications in both two and three dimensions. This thesis presents axis mapping, which is an algorithm that accurately and automatically estimates an axis map of an environment based on sensor measurements collected by a mobile platform. Furthermore, two major applications of axis maps are developed and implemented. First, the LiDAR compass is a heading estimation algorithm that compares measurements of axes with an axis map of the environment. Pairing the LiDAR compass with simple translation measurements forms the basis for an accurate two-dimensional localization algorithm. It is shown that this algorithm eliminates the growth of heading error in both indoor and outdoor environments, resulting in accurate localization over long distances. Second, in the context of geotechnical engineering, a three-dimensional axis map is called a stereonet, which is used as a tool to examine the strength and stability of a rock face. Axis mapping provides a novel approach to create accurate stereonets safely, rapidly, and inexpensively compared to established methods. The non-injective property of axis maps is leveraged to probabilistically describe the relationships between non-sequential measurements of the rock face. The automatic estimation of stereonets was tested in three separate outdoor environments. It is shown that axis mapping can accurately estimate stereonets while improving safety, requiring significantly less time and effort, and lowering costs compared to traditional and current state-of-the-art approaches.

Motivating film title translation: a cognitive análisis

This proposal is a non-quantitative study based on a corpus of real data which offers a principled account of the translation strategies employed in the translation of English film titles into Spanish in terms of cognitive modeling. More specifically, we draw on Ruiz de Mendoza and Galera’s (2014) work on what they term content (or low-level) cognitive operations, based on either ‘stands for’ or ‘identity’ relations, in order to investigate possible motivating factors for translations which abide by oblique procedures, i.e. for non-literal renderings of source titles. The present proposal is made in consonance with recent findings within the framework of Cognitive Linguistics (Samaniego 2007), which evidence that this linguistic approach can fruitfully address some relevant issues in Translation Studies, the most outstanding for our purposes being the exploration of the cognitive operations which account for the use of translation strategies (Rojo and Ibarretxe-Antuñano 2013: 10), mainly expansion and reduction operations, parameterization, echoing, mitigation and comparison by contrast. This fits in nicely with a descriptive approach to translation and particularly with skopos theory, whose main aim consists in achieving functionally adequate renderings of source texts.

Age-Specific Fertility Dynamics: Sub-Saharan African Fertility in a Global Context

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Washington, 2016-08

Convective Cold Pools over the Atlas Mountains and Their Influence on the Saharan Heat Low

The West African Monsoon (WAM) and its representation in numerical models are strongly influenced by the Saharan Heat Low (SHL), a low-pressure system driven by radiative heating over the central Sahara and ventilated by the cold and moist inflow from adjacent oceans. It has recently been shown that a significant part of the southerly moisture flux into the SHL originates from convective cold pools over the Sahel. These density currents driven by evaporation of rain are largely absent in models with parameterized convection. This crucial issue has been hypothesized to contribute to the inability of many climate models to reproduce the variability of the WAM. Here, the role of convective cold pools approaching the SHL from the Atlas Mountains, which are a strong orographic trigger for deep convection in Northwest Africa, is analyzed. Knowledge about the frequency of these events, as well as their impact on large-scale dynamics, is required to understand their contribution to the variability of the SHL and to known model uncertainties. The first aspect is addressed through the development of an objective and automated method for the generation of multi-year climatologies not available before. The algorithm combines freely available standard surface observations with satellite microwave data. Representativeness of stations and influence of their spatial density are addressed by comparison to a satellite-only climatology. Applying this algorithm to data from automated weather stations and manned synoptic stations in and south of the Atlas Mountains reveals the frequent occurrence. On the order of 6 events per month are detected from May to September when the SHL is in its northernmost position. The events tend to cluster into several-days long convectively active periods, often with strong events on consecutive days. This study is the first to diagnose dynamical impacts of such periods on the SHL, based on simulations of two example cases using the Weather Research and Forecast (WRF) model at convection-permitting resolution. Sensitivity experiments with artificially removed cold pools as well as different resolutions and parameterizations are conducted. Results indicate increases in surface pressure of more than 1 hPa and significant moisture transports into the desert over several days. This moisture affects radiative heating and thus the energy balance of the SHL. Even though cold pool events north of the SHL are less frequent when compared to their Sahelian counterparts, it is shown that they gain importance due to their temporal clustering on synoptic timescale. Together with studies focusing on the Sahel, this work emphasizes the need for improved parameterization schemes for deep convection in order to produce more reliable climate projections for the WAM.

Exact Solution of Bayes and Minimax Change-Detection Problems

The challenge of detecting a change in the distribution of data is a sequential decision problem that is relevant to many engineering solutions, including quality control and machine and process monitoring. This dissertation develops techniques for exact solution of change-detection problems with discrete time and discrete observations. Change-detection problems are classified as Bayes or minimax based on the availability of information on the change-time distribution. A Bayes optimal solution uses prior information about the distribution of the change time to minimize the expected cost, whereas a minimax optimal solution minimizes the cost under the worst-case change-time distribution. Both types of problems are addressed. The most important result of the dissertation is the development of a polynomial-time algorithm for the solution of important classes of Markov Bayes change-detection problems. Existing techniques for epsilon-exact solution of partially observable Markov decision processes have complexity exponential in the number of observation symbols. A new algorithm, called constellation induction, exploits the concavity and Lipschitz continuity of the value function, and has complexity polynomial in the number of observation symbols. It is shown that change-detection problems with a geometric change-time distribution and identically- and independently-distributed observations before and after the change are solvable in polynomial time. Also, change-detection problems on hidden Markov models with a fixed number of recurrent states are solvable in polynomial time. A detailed implementation and analysis of the constellation-induction algorithm are provided. Exact solution methods are also established for several types of minimax change-detection problems. Finite-horizon problems with arbitrary observation distributions are modeled as extensive-form games and solved using linear programs. Infinite-horizon problems with linear penalty for detection delay and identically- and independently-distributed observations can be solved in polynomial time via epsilon-optimal parameterization of a cumulative-sum procedure. Finally, the properties of policies for change-detection problems are described and analyzed. Simple classes of formal languages are shown to be sufficient for epsilon-exact solution of change-detection problems, and methods for finding minimally sized policy representations are described.

Toward assessing the effects of aerosols on deep convection: a numerical study using the WRF-Chemistry model

As the formative agents of cloud droplets, aerosols play an undeniably important role in the development of clouds and precipitation. Few meteorological models have been developed or adapted to simulate aerosols and their contribution to cloud and precipitation processes. The Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRF) has recently been coupled with an atmospheric chemistry suite and is jointly referred to as WRF-Chem, allowing atmospheric chemistry and meteorology to influence each other’s evolution within a mesoscale modeling framework. Provided that the model physics are robust, this framework allows the feedbacks between aerosol chemistry, cloud physics, and dynamics to be investigated. This study focuses on the effects of aerosols on meteorology, specifically, the interaction of aerosol chemical species with microphysical processes represented within the framework of the WRF-Chem. Aerosols are represented by eight size bins using the Model for Simulating Aerosol Interactions and Chemistry (MOSAIC) sectional parameterization, which is linked to the Purdue Lin bulk microphysics scheme. The aim of this study is to examine the sensitivity of deep convective precipitation modeled by the 2D WRF-Chem to varying aerosol number concentration and aerosol type. A systematic study has been performed regarding the effects of aerosols on parameters such as total precipitation, updraft/downdraft speed, distribution of hydrometeor species, and organizational features, within idealized maritime and continental thermodynamic environments. Initial results were obtained using WRFv3.0.1, and a second series of tests were run using WRFv3.2 after several changes to the activation, autoconversion, and Lin et al. microphysics schemes added by the WRF community, as well as the implementation of prescribed vertical levels by the author. The results of WRFv3.2 runs contrasted starkly with WRFv3.0.1 runs. The WRFv3.0.1 runs produced a propagating system resembling a developing squall line, whereas the WRFv3.2 runs did not. The response of total precipitation, updraft/downdraft speeds, and system organization to increasing aerosol concentrations were opposite between runs with different versions of WRF. Results of the WRFv3.2 runs, however, were in better agreement in timing and magnitude of vertical velocity and hydrometeor content with a WRFv3.0.1 run using single-moment Lin et al. microphysics, than WRFv3.0.1 runs with chemistry. One result consistent throughout all simulations was an inhibition in warm-rain processes due to enhanced aerosol concentrations, which resulted in a delay of precipitation onset that ranged from 2-3 minutes in WRFv3.2 runs, and up to 15 minutes in WRFv.3.0.1 runs. This result was not observed in a previous study by Ntelekos et al. (2009) using the WRF-Chem, perhaps due to their use of coarser horizontal and vertical resolution within their experiment. The changes to microphysical processes such as activation and autoconversion from WRFv3.0.1 to WRFv3.2, along with changes in the packing of vertical levels, had more impact than the varying aerosol concentrations even though the range of aerosol tested was greater than that observed in field studies. In order to take full advantage of the input of aerosols now offered by the chemistry module in WRF, the author recommends that a fully double-moment microphysics scheme be linked, rather than the limited double-moment Lin et al. scheme that currently exists. With this modification, the WRF-Chem will be a powerful tool for studying aerosol-cloud interactions and allow comparison of results with other studies using more modern and complex microphysical parameterizations.

Validation of AltiKa Matching Pursuit Rain Flag

The major drawback of Ka band, operating frequency of the AltiKa altimeter on board SARAL, is its sensitivity to atmospheric liquid water. Even light rain or heavy clouds can strongly attenuate the signal and distort the signal leading to erroneous geophysical parameters estimates. A good detection of the samples affected by atmospheric liquid water is crucial. As AltiKa operates at a single frequency, a new technique based on the detection by a Matching Pursuit algorithm of short scale variations of the slope of the echo waveform plateau has been developed and implemented prelaunch in the ground segment. As the parameterization of the detection algorithm was defined using Jason-1 data, the parameters were re-estimated during the cal-val phase, during which the algorithm was also updated. The measured sensor signal-to-noise ratio is significantly better than planned, the data loss due to attenuation by rain is significantly smaller than expected (<0.1%). For cycles 2 to 9, the flag detects about 9% of 1Hz data, 5.5% as rainy and 3.5 % as backscatter bloom (or sigma0 bloom). The results of the flagging process are compared to independent rain data from microwave radiometers to evaluate its performances in term of detection and false alarms.

As habilidades sociais em dependentes de álcool: Um estudo exploratório

A vida social de um indivíduo dependente do álcool é na maioria das vezes um factor de risco para continuar ou aumentar o consumo excessivo de bebidas alcoólicas. Um dos grandes fracassos do alcoólico é não cumprir adequadamente um papel social desejado, o que resulta em prejuízos para si mesmo e para os outros. O indivíduo que abusa no consumo, depressa perde a sua reputação junto de colegas, amigos e familiares, o que o deixa mais intolerante à frustração e aumenta o consumo. A mentira toma-se então sua aliada, pois através dela ele vai reduzindo a ansiedade causada pelo fracasso na vida social e que os outros teimam em deixar bem nítido. Identificar os problemas sociais dos quais o indivíduo padece, é fundamental para planear melhor uma estratégia de intervenção, quer seja ela de prevenção, de psicoterapia ou de reabilitação. Os programas de tratamento habitualmente propostos para a abordagem dos problemas derivados do consumo de álcool centram a sua atenção, quase exclusivamente, no comportamento aditivo como guia orientador da intervenção e como indicador objectivo do êxito do próprio programa Mas na maioria dos casos o comportamento aditivo é sim a manifestação mais objectiva de um profundo desajuste entre o sujeito consigo mesmo e com o seu meio ambiente. É por isso, objectivo dos processos de recuperação oferecer-lhe a possibilidade de recuperar a crença na palavra ou aprender o seu valor como meio de comunicação fundamental entre os homens. Para além de possibilitar aos sujeitos dependentes de álcool este valor, importa também incutir nos sujeitos o valor positivo de viver com limites; pois são especialistas em tentar sabotar a acção dos técnicos e em descobrir as suas debilidades para as utilizarem em seu interesse. Importa por isso, que aprendam o valor das leis e a utilidade, para todos, de cumpri-las (Kalina, 2001). Assim, o treino de habilidades sociais constitui uma parte importante dos tratamentos para os sujeitos com problemas de abuso de álcool e drogas. Foi nesse sentido que nos propusemos a identificar o nível de habilidades sociais em pessoas dependentes de álcool. O estudo que desenvolvemos é de carácter exploratório/descritivo, para o qual optámos por utilizar uma metodologia quantitativa. A amostra foi constituída por 229 indivíduos, do sexo masculino, dependentes de álcool, em instituições nacionais de referência na área da alcoologia O instrumento de recolha de dados é constituído por um Questionário de dados sócio demográficos, uma Escala de Habilidades Sociais e uma Escala de Auto-apreciação Pessoal. Constatamos que a amostra constituída por indivíduos dependentes de álcool apresenta uma pontuação média na Escala de Habilidades Sociais de 89.96, equivalente ao percentil 55 na tabela de parametrização de Gismero (2002). Este valor é claramente inferior ao conseguido por qualquer uma das outras amostras analisadas, seja a do estudo preliminar, seja a do estudo comparativo, constituída por indivíduos da população em geral e que conseguiram um percentil 70. ABSTRACT; The social life of a person dependent on alcohol is, most of the time, a risk factor to continue or increase the alcohol excessive consumption. One of the alcoholic failures is the fact that he is unable to perform an adequate social role, to the detriment of himself and others. A person, who abuses alcohol consumption, soon loses his reputation next to his colleagues, friends and relatives, which makes him intolerant of frustration and increases the alcohol consumption. To lie becomes his best ally, because it helps him to reduce the anxiety caused by the failure of his social life, what is promptly pointed out by others. To identify the individual social problems is essential to plan the best intervention strategy. This can be of prevention, psychotherapy or rehabilitation. The treatment programmers, usually proposed to deal with the problems caused by alcohol consumption, focus almost exclusively on the addictive behaviour, as a guide line for the intervention and as an objective indicator of the success of the programme itself. But, in most cases, the addictive behaviour is an objective manifestation of a deep break off of the individual with himself and with his environment. That is why the aim of the recuperation process is to offer the individual the possibility to recover their belief on the word or to learn its value as an essential means of communication for men. Besides getting the message trough, it is also important to make the individuals aware of the positive value of living within limits. These individuals are specialists on trying to sabotage the technicians’ actions, discovering their weaknesses so they can use them on their own behalf. That is why it is so important that they learn the value of rules and the importance of accomplishing them (Kalina, 2001). Therefore, the training of the social skills is an important part of the treatment of individuals with problems of alcohol or dugs addiction. So, we committed ourselves to identifying the level of social skills on people who have an alcohol addiction. The study we developed is exploratory/ descriptive and we chose to use a quantitative methodology. The sample was of 229 male alcohol dependent individuals, staying in national institutes of reference in the area of alcohol abuse and alcoholism. The means to collect data were a social demographic data questionnaire, a scale of social skills and a scale of personal self- assessment. We realized that the sample of alcohol dependent individuals presents an average score in social skills of 89.96, equivalent to a percentile of 55 in the parameterization of Gismero (2002). This is clearly a lower value than the one obtained by any other sample we analyzed, whether in the preliminary study or in the comparative study, constituted by individuals of the common population that achieved a percentile of 70.

QuasiGeostrophic Diagnosis of Mixed-Layer Dynamics Embedded in a Mesoscale Turbulent Field

A quasigeostrophic model is developed to diagnose the three-dimensional circulation, including the vertical velocity, in the upper ocean from high-resolution observations of sea surface height and buoyancy. The formulation for the adiabatic component departs from the classical surface quasigeostrophic framework considered before since it takes into account the stratification within the surface mixed layer that is usually much weaker than that in the ocean interior. To achieve this, the model approximates the ocean with two constant stratification layers: a finite-thickness surface layer (or the mixed layer) and an infinitely deep interior layer. It is shown that the leading-order adiabatic circulation is entirely determined if both the surface streamfunction and buoyancy anomalies are considered. The surface layer further includes a diabatic dynamical contribution. Parameterization of diabatic vertical velocities is based on their restoring impacts of the thermal wind balance that is perturbed by turbulent vertical mixing of momentum and buoyancy. The model skill in reproducing the three-dimensional circulation in the upper ocean from surface data is checked against the output of a high-resolution primitive equation numerical simulation

Predicting Plant Performance Under Simultaneously Changing Environmental Conditions-The Interplay Between Temperature, Light, and Internode Growth

Plant performance is significantly influenced by prevailing light and temperature conditions during plant growth and development. For plants exposed to natural fluctuations in abiotic environmental conditions it is however laborious and cumbersome to experimentally assign any contribution of individual environmental factors to plant responses. This study aimed at analyzing the interplay between light, temperature and internode growth based on model approaches. We extended the light-sensitive virtual plant model L-Cucumber by implementing a common Arrhenius function for appearance rates, growth rates, and growth durations. For two greenhouse experiments, the temperature-sensitive model approach resulted in a precise prediction of cucumber mean internode lengths and number of internodes, as well as in accurately predicted patterns of individual internode lengths along the main stem. In addition, a system's analysis revealed that environmental data averaged over the experimental period were not necessarily related to internode performance. Finally, the need for a species-specific parameterization of the temperature response function and related aspects in modeling temperature effects on plant development and growth is discussed.

Um modelo para aferir o nível de maturidade na adoção de SOA

Tese (doutorado)—Universidade de Brasília, Faculdade de Tecnologia, Departamento de Engenharia Elétrica, 2015.

Savani: A variable resolution whole-mantle model of anisotropic shear velocity variations based on multiple data sets

International audience

Exploitation du potentiel sismique des étoiles naines blanches

Le but de cette thèse est d’explorer le potentiel sismique des étoiles naines blanches pulsantes, et en particulier celles à atmosphères riches en hydrogène, les étoiles ZZ Ceti. La technique d’astérosismologie exploite l’information contenue dans les modes normaux de vibration qui peuvent être excités lors de phases particulières de l’évolution d’une étoile. Ces modes modulent le flux émergent de l’étoile pulsante et se manifestent principalement en termes de variations lumineuses multi-périodiques. L’astérosismologie consiste donc à examiner la luminosité d’étoiles pulsantes en fonction du temps, afin d’en extraire les périodes, les amplitudes apparentes, ainsi que les phases relatives des modes de pulsation détectés, en utilisant des méthodes standards de traitement de signal, telles que des techniques de Fourier. L’étape suivante consiste à comparer les périodes de pulsation observées avec des périodes générées par un modèle stellaire en cherchant l’accord optimal avec un modèle physique reconstituant le plus fidèlement possible l’étoile pulsante. Afin d’assurer une recherche optimale dans l’espace des paramètres, il est nécessaire d’avoir de bons modèles physiques, un algorithme d’optimisation de comparaison de périodes efficace, et une puissance de calcul considérable. Les périodes des modes de pulsation de modèles stellaires de naines blanches peuvent être généralement calculées de manière précise et fiable sur la base de la théorie linéaire des pulsations stellaires dans sa version adiabatique. Afin de définir dans son ensemble un modèle statique de naine blanche propre à l’analyse astérosismologique, il est nécessaire de spécifier la gravité de surface, la température effective, ainsi que différents paramètres décrivant la disposition en couche de l’enveloppe. En utilisant parallèlement les informations obtenues de manière indépendante (température effective et gravité de surface) par la méthode spectroscopique, il devient possible de vérifier la validité de la solution obtenue et de restreindre de manière remarquable l’espace des paramètres. L’exercice astérosismologique, s’il est réussi, mène donc à la détermination précise des paramètres de la structure globale de l’étoile pulsante et fournit de l’information unique sur sa structure interne et l’état de sa phase évolutive. On présente dans cette thèse l’analyse complète réussie, de l’extraction des fréquences à la solution sismique, de quatre étoiles naines blanches pulsantes. Il a été possible de déterminer les paramètres structuraux de ces étoiles et de les comparer remarquablement à toutes les contraintes indépendantes disponibles dans la littérature, mais aussi d’inférer sur la dynamique interne et de reconstruire le profil de rotation interne. Dans un premier temps, on analyse le duo d’étoiles ZZ Ceti, GD 165 et Ross 548, afin de comprendre les différences entre leurs propriétés de pulsation, malgré le fait qu’elles soient des étoiles similaires en tout point, spectroscopiquement parlant. L’analyse sismique révèle des structures internes différentes, et dévoile la sensibilité de certains modes de pulsation à la composition interne du noyau de l’étoile. Afin de palier à cette sensibilité, nouvellement découverte, et de rivaliser avec les données de qualité exceptionnelle que nous fournissent les missions spatiales Kepler et Kepler2, on développe une nouvelle paramétrisation des profils chimiques dans le coeur, et on valide la robustesse de notre technique et de nos modèles par de nombreux tests. Avec en main la nouvelle paramétrisation du noyau, on décroche enfin le ”Saint Graal” de l’astérosismologie, en étant capable de reproduire pour la première fois les périodes observées à la précision des observations, dans le cas de l’étude sismique des étoiles KIC 08626021 et de GD 1212.

Inertial dissipation method applied to derive turbulent fluxed over the ocean during the Surface of the Ocean, Fluxes and Interactions with the Atmosphere Atlantic Stratocumulus Transition Experiment (SOFIA/ASTEX) and Structure des Echanges Mer-Atmosphere, Proprietes des Heterogeneites Oceaniques: Recherche Experimentale (SEMAPHORE) experiments with low to moderate wind speed

The transfer coefficients for momentum and heat have been determined for 10 m neutral wind speeds (U-10n) between 0 and 12 m/s using data from the Surface of the Ocean, Fluxes and Interactions with the Atmosphere (SOFIA) and Structure des Echanges Mer-Atmosphere, Proprietes des Heterogeneites Oceaniques: Recherche Experimentale (SEMAPHORE) experiments. The inertial dissipation method was applied to wind and pseudo virtual temperature spectra from a sonic anemometer, mounted on a platform (ship) which was moving through the turbulence held. Under unstable conditions the assumptions concerning the turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) budget appeared incorrect. Using a bulk estimate for the stability parameter, Z/L (where Z is the height and L is the Obukhov length), this resulted in anomalously low drag coefficients compared to neutral conditions. Determining Z/L iteratively, a low rate of convergence was achieved. It was concluded that the divergence of the turbulent transport of TKE was not negligible under unstable conditions. By minimizing the dependence of the calculated neutral drag coefficient on stability, this term was estimated at about -0.65Z/L. The resulting turbulent fluxes were then in close agreement with other studies at moderate wind speed. The drag and exchange coefficients for low wind speeds were found to be C-en x 10(3) = 2.79U(10n)(-1) + 0.66 (U-10n < 5.2 m/s), C-en x 10(3) = C-hn x 10(3) = 1.2 (U-10n greater than or equal to 5.2 m/s), and C-dn x 10(3) = 11.7U(10n)(-2) + 0.668 (U-10n < 5.5 m/s), which imply a rapid increase of the coefficient values as the wind decreased within the smooth flow regime. The frozen turbulence hypothesis and the assumptions of isotropy and an inertial subrange were found to remain valid at these low wind speeds for these shipboard measurements. Incorporation of a free convection parameterization had little effect.