Climate Change and Restoration of Degraded Land

The United Nations Climate Change Conference, Durban 2011, delivered a breakthrough on the international community's response to climate change. In the second largest meeting of its kind, the negotiations advanced, in a balanced fashion, the implementation of the Convention and the Kyoto Protocol, the Bali Action Plan, and the Cancun Agreements. The outcomes included a decision by Parties to adopt a universal legal agreement on climate change as soon as possible, and no later than 2015. One of the decisions adopted by COP 17 and CMP 7 regard to the land use, land-use change and forestry, and invites the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change to review and, if necessary, update supplementary methodologies for estimating anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions by sources and removals by sinks resulting from land use, land-use change and forestry activities under Article 3, paragraphs 3 and 4, of the Kyoto Protocol. Land degradation is a human-induced or natural process which negatively affects the productivity of land within an ecosystem. The direct causes of land degradation are geographically specific. Climate change, including changes in short-term variation, as well as long-term gradual changes in temperature and precipitation, is expected to be an additional stress on rates of land degradation. Book Topics: ��� Introduction to Climate Change and Land Degradation ��� Change Mitigation ��� Climate Change and Waste Land Restoration ��� Water Management and Planning ��� Erosion and Hydrological Restoration ��� Forest Fire Land Restoration ��� Polluted Soils Restoration ��� Combating Climate Change by Restoration of Degraded Land ��� Research Matters ��� Climate Change Governance ��� Advanced Statistics Climate Change and Restoration of Degraded Land is of interests to academics, engineers, consultans, designers and professionals involved in restoration of degraded lands projects.

Cost-effective mitigation of ammonia emissions from fertilizer use in Spanish agroecosystems

Mitigaci��n GEI sistemas agr��colas

A multi-scale analysis of transforming agricultural markets in the context of globalization: implications for natural resources, food prices and rural poverty in Latin America

Vivimos una ��poca en la que el mundo se transforma aceleradamente. La globalizaci��n est�� siguiendo un curso imparable, la poblaci��n mundial as�� como la poblaci��n urbana siguen creciendo, y en los pa��ses emergentes los ingresos promedios aumentan, resultando en un cambio tambi��n acelerado de las dietas y h��bitos alimentarios. En conjunto esos factores est��n causando un aumento fundamental de la demanda de alimentos. Junto con la apertura de los mercados agr��colas, estos procesos han provocado un crecimiento del comercio internacional de alimentos durante la ��ltima d��cada. Dado que muchos pa��ses de Am��rica Latina est��n dotados de abundancia de recursos naturales, estas tendencias han producido un crecimiento r��pido de las exportaciones de bienes primarios desde Am��rica Latina al resto del mundo. En s��lo 30 a��os la participaci��n en el mercado agr��cola de Am��rica Latina casi se ha duplicado, desde 10% en 1980 a 18% en 2010. Este aumento del comercio agr��cola ha dado lugar a un debate sobre una serie de cuestiones cruciales relacionadas con los impactos del comercio en la seguridad alimentaria mundial, en el medio ambiente o en la reducci��n de la pobreza rural en pa��ses en desarrollo. Esta tesis aplica un marco integrado para analizar varios impactos relacionados con la transformaci��n de los mercados agr��colas y los mercados rurales debidos a la globalizaci��n y, en particular, al progresivo aumento del comercio internacional. En concreto, la tesis aborda los siguientes temas: En primer lugar, la producci��n mundial de alimentos tendr�� que aumentar considerablemente para poder satisfacer la demanda de una poblaci��n mundial de 9000 millones personas en 2050, lo cual plantea grandes desaf��os sobre los sistemas de la producci��n de alimentos. Alcanzar este logro, sin comprometer la integridad del medio ambiente en regiones exportadoras, es un reto a��n mayor. En este contexto, la tesis analiza los efectos de la liberalizaci��n del comercio mundial, considerando distintas tecnolog��as de producci��n agraria, sobre unos indicadores de seguridad alimentaria en diferentes regiones del mundo y sobre distintos indicadores ambientales, teniendo en cuenta escalas diferentes en Am��rica Latina y el Caribe. La tesis utiliza el modelo ���International Model for Policy Analysis of Agricultural Commodities and Trade (IMPACT)��� ��� un modelo din��mico de equilibrio parcial del sector agr��cola a escala global ��� para modelar la apertura de los mercados agr��colas as�� como diferentes escenarios de la producci��n hasta el a��o 2050. Los resultados del modelo est��n vinculados a modelos biof��sicos para poder evaluar los cambios en la huella h��drica y la calidad del agua, as�� como para cuantificar los impactos del cambio en el uso del suelo sobre la biodiversidad y los stocks de carbono en 2050. Los resultados indican que la apertura de los mercados agr��colas es muy importante para mejorar la seguridad alimentaria a nivel mundial, sin embargo, produce tambi��n presiones ambientales indeseables en algunas regiones de Am��rica Latina. Contrastando dos escenarios que consideran distintas modos de producci��n, la expansi��n de la tierra agr��cola frente a un escenario de la producci��n m��s intensiva, se demuestra que las mejoras de productividad son generalmente superiores a la expansi��n de las tierras agr��colas, desde un punto de vista econ��mico e ambiental. En cambio, los escenarios de intensificaci��n sostenible no s��lo hacen posible una mayor producci��n de alimentos, sino que tambi��n generan menos impactos medioambientales que los otros escenarios futuros en todas sus dimensiones: biodiversidad, carbono, emisiones de nitratos y uso del agua. El an��lisis muestra que hay un ���trade-off��� entre el objetivo de alcanzar la sostenibilidad ambiental y el objetivo de la seguridad alimentaria, independiente del manejo agr��cola en el futuro. En segundo lugar, a la luz de la reciente crisis de los precios de alimentos en los a��os 2007/08, la tesis analiza los impactos de la apertura de los mercados agr��colas en la transmisi��n de precios de los alimentos en seis pa��ses de Am��rica Latina: Argentina, Brasil, Chile, Colombia, M��xico y el Per��. Para identificar las posibles relaciones de cointegraci��n entre los ��ndices de precios al consumidor de alimentos y los ��ndices de precios de agrarios internacionales, sujetos a diferentes grados de apertura de mercados agr��colas en los seis pa��ses de Am��rica Latina, se utiliza un modelo simple de correcci��n de error (single equation error correction). Los resultados indican que la integraci��n global de los mercados agr��colas ha dado lugar a diferentes tasas de transmisi��n de precios en los pa��ses investigados. Sobre todo en el corto plazo, las tasas de transmisi��n dependen del grado de apertura comercial, mientras que en el largo plazo las tasas de transmisi��n son elevadas, pero en gran medida independientes del r��gimen de comercio. Por lo tanto, durante un per��odo de shocks de precios mundiales una mayor apertura del comercio trae consigo m��s inestabilidad de los precios dom��sticos a corto plazo y la resultante persistencia en el largo plazo. Sin embargo, estos resultados no verifican necesariamente la utilidad de las pol��ticas comerciales, aplicadas frecuentemente por los gobiernos para amortiguar los shocks de precios. Primero, porque existe un riesgo considerable de volatilidad de los precios debido a cambios bruscos de la oferta nacional si se promueve la autosuficiencia en el pa��s; y segundo, la pol��tica de proteccionismo asume el riesgo de excluir el pa��s de participar en las cadenas de suministro de alto valor del sector agr��cola, y por lo tanto esa pol��tica podr��a obstaculizar el desarrollo econ��mico. Sin embargo, es indispensable establecer pol��ticas efectivas para reducir la vulnerabilidad de los hogares a los aumentos repentinos de precios de alimentos, lo cual requiere una planificaci��n gubernamental precisa con el presupuesto requerido disponible. En tercer lugar, la globalizaci��n afecta a la estructura de una econom��a y, por medios distintos, la distribuci��n de los ingreso en un pa��s. Per�� sirve como ejemplo para investigar m��s profundamente las cuestiones relacionadas con los cambios en la distribuci��n de los ingresos en zonas rurales. Per��, que es un pa��s que est�� cada vez m��s integrado en los mercados mundiales, consigui�� importantes descensos en la pobreza extrema en sus zonas rurales, pero a la vez adolece de alta incidencia de pobreza moderada y de desigualdad de los ingresos en zonas rural al menos durante el periodo comprendido entre 2004 y 2012. Esta parte de la tesis tiene como objetivo identificar las fuerzas impulsoras detr��s de estas din��micas en el Per�� mediante el uso de un modelo de microsimulaci��n basado en modelos de generaci��n de ingresos aplicado a nivel los hogares rurales. Los resultados indican que la fuerza principal detr��s de la reducci��n de la pobreza ha sido el crecimiento econ��mico general de la econom��a, debido a las condiciones macroecon��micas favorables durante el periodo de estudio. Estos efectos de crecimiento beneficiaron a casi todos los sectores rurales, y dieron lugar a la disminuci��n de la pobreza rural extrema, especialmente entre los agricultores de papas y de ma��z. En parte, estos agricultores probablemente se beneficiaron de la apertura de los mercados agr��colas, que es lo que podr��a haber provocado un aumento de los precios al productor en tiempos de altos precios mundiales de los alimentos. Sin embargo, los resultados tambi��n sugieren que para una gran parte de la poblaci��n m��s pobre exist��an barreras de entrada a la hora de poder participar en el empleo asalariado fuera de la agricultura o en la producci��n de cultivos de alto valor. Esto podr��a explicarse por la falta de acceso a unos activos importantes: por ejemplo, el nivel de educaci��n de los pobres era apenas mejor en 2012 que en 2004; y tambi��n las dotaciones de tierra y de mano de obra, sobre todo de los productores pobres de ma��z y patata, disminuyeron entre 2004 y 2012. Esto lleva a la conclusi��n de que a��n hay margen para aplicar pol��ticas para facilitar el acceso a estos activos, que podr��a contribuir a la erradicaci��n de la pobreza rural. La tesis concluye que el comercio agr��cola puede ser un importante medio para abastecer una poblaci��n mundial creciente y m��s rica con una cantidad suficiente de calor��as. Para evitar adversos efectos ambientales e impactos negativos para los consumidores y de los productores pobres, el enfoque debe centrarse en las mejoras de la productividad agr��cola, teniendo en cuenta los l��mites ambientales y ser socialmente inclusivo. En este sentido, ser�� indispensable seguir desarrollando soluciones tecnol��gicas que garanticen pr��cticas de producci��n agr��cola minimizando el uso de recursos naturales. Adem��s, para los peque��os pobres agricultores ser�� fundamental eliminar las barreras de entrada a los mercados de exportaci��n que podr��a tener efectos indirectos favorables a trav��s de la adopci��n de nuevas tecnolog��as alcanzables a trav��s de mercados internacionales. ABSTRACT The world is in a state of rapid transition. Ongoing globalization, population growth, rising living standards and increasing urbanization, accompanied by changing dietary patterns throughout the world, are increasing the demand for food. Together with more open trade regimes, this has triggered growing international agricultural trade during the last decade. For many Latin American countries, which are gifted with relative natural resource abundance, these trends have fueled rapid export growth of primary goods. In just 30 years, the Latin American agricultural market share has almost doubled from 10% in 1980 to 18% in 2010. These market developments have given rise to a debate around a number of crucial issues related to the role of agricultural trade for global food security, for the environment or for poverty reduction in developing countries. This thesis uses an integrated framework to analyze a broad array of possible impacts related to transforming agricultural and rural markets in light of globalization, and in particular of increasing trade activity. Specifically, the following issues are approached: First, global food production will have to rise substantially by the year 2050 to meet effective demand of a nine billion people world population which poses major challenges to food production systems. Doing so without compromising environmental integrity in exporting regions is an even greater challenge. In this context, the thesis explores the effects of future global trade liberalization on food security indicators in different world regions and on a variety of environmental indicators at different scales in Latin America and the Caribbean, in due consideration of different future agricultural production practices. The International Model for Policy Analysis of Agricultural Commodities and Trade (IMPACT) ���a global dynamic partial equilibrium model of the agricultural sector developed by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)��� is applied to run different future production scenarios, and agricultural trade regimes out to 2050. Model results are linked to biophysical models, used to assess changes in water footprints and water quality, as well as impacts on biodiversity and carbon stocks from land use change by 2050. Results indicate that further trade liberalization is crucial for improving food security globally, but that it would also lead to more environmental pressures in some regions across Latin America. Contrasting land expansion versus more intensified agriculture shows that productivity improvements are generally superior to agricultural land expansion, from an economic and environmental point of view. Most promising for achieving food security and environmental goals, in equal measure, is the sustainable intensification scenario. However, the analysis shows that there are trade-offs between environmental and food security goals for all agricultural development paths. Second, in light of the recent food price crisis of 2007/08, the thesis looks at the impacts of increasing agricultural market integration on food price transmission from global to domestic markets in six Latin American countries, namely Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Mexico and Peru. To identify possible cointegrating relationships between the domestic food consumer price indices and world food price levels, subject to different degrees of agricultural market integration in the six Latin American countries, a single equation error correction model is used. Results suggest that global agricultural market integration has led to different levels of price path-through in the studied countries. Especially in the short-run, transmission rates depend on the degree of trade openness, while in the long-run transmission rates are high, but largely independent of the country-specific trade regime. Hence, under world price shocks more trade openness brings with it more price instability in the short-term and the resulting persistence in the long-term. However, these findings do not necessarily verify the usefulness of trade policies, often applied by governments to buffer such price shocks. First, because there is a considerable risk of price volatility due to domestic supply shocks if self-sufficiency is promoted. Second, protectionism bears the risk of excluding a country from participating in beneficial high-value agricultural supply chains, thereby hampering economic development. Nevertheless, to reduce households��� vulnerability to sudden and large increases of food prices, effective policies to buffer food price shocks should be put in place, but must be carefully planned with the required budget readily available. Third, globalization affects the structure of an economy and, by different means, the distribution of income in a country. Peru serves as an example to dive deeper into questions related to changes in the income distribution in rural areas. Peru, a country being increasingly integrated into global food markets, experienced large drops in extreme rural poverty, but persistently high rates of moderate rural poverty and rural income inequality between 2004 and 2012. The thesis aims at disentangling the driving forces behind these dynamics by using a microsimulation model based on rural household income generation models. Results provide evidence that the main force behind poverty reduction was overall economic growth of the economy due to generally favorable macroeconomic market conditions. These growth effects benefited almost all rural sectors, and led to declines in extreme rural poverty, especially among potato and maize farmers. In part, these farmers probably benefited from policy changes towards more open trade regimes and the resulting higher producer prices in times of elevated global food price levels. However, the results also suggest that entry barriers existed for the poorer part of the population to participate in well-paid wage-employment outside of agriculture or in high-value crop production. This could be explained by a lack of sufficient access to important rural assets. For example, poor people���s educational attainment was hardly better in 2012 than in 2004. Also land and labor endowments, especially of (poor) maize and potato growers, rather decreased than increased over time. This leads to the conclusion that there is still scope for policy action to facilitate access to these assets, which could contribute to the eradication of rural poverty. The thesis concludes that agricultural trade can be one important means to provide a growing and richer world population with sufficient amounts of calories. To avoid adverse environmental effects and negative impacts for poor food consumers and producers, the focus should lie on agricultural productivity improvements, considering environmental limits and be socially inclusive. In this sense, it will be crucial to further develop technological solutions that guarantee resource-sparing agricultural production practices, and to remove entry barriers for small poor farmers to export markets which might allow for technological spill-over effects from high-value global agricultural supply chains.

Assessing the accessibility impact of transport policy by a land-use and transport interaction model - The case of Madrid

Accessibility is an essential concept widely used to evaluate the impact of transport and land-use strategies in urban planning and policy making. Accessibility is typically evaluated by using separately a transport model or a land-use model. This paper embeds two accessibility indicators (i.e., potential and adaptive accessibility) in a land use and transport interaction (LUTI) model in order to assess transport policies implementation. The first aim is to define the adaptive accessibility, considering the competition factor at territorial level (e.g. workplaces and workers). The second aim is to identify the optimal implementation scenario of policy measures using potential and adaptive accessibility indicators. The analysis of the results in terms of social welfare and accessibility changes closes the paper. Two transport policy measures are applied in Madrid region: a cordon toll and increase bus frequency. They have been simulated through the MARS model (Metropolitan Activity Relocation Simulator, i.e. LUTI model). An optimisation procedure is performed by MARS for maximizing the value of the objective function in order to find the optimal policy implementation (first best). Both policy measures are evaluated in terms of accessibility. Results show that the introduction of the accessibility indicators (potential and adaptive) influence the optimal value of the toll price and bus frequency level, generating different results in terms of social welfare. Mapping the difference between potential and adaptive accessibility indicator shows that the main changes occur in areas where there is a strong competition among different land-use opportunities.

Stream biodiversity: The ghost of land use past

The influence of past land use on the present-day diversity of stream invertebrates and fish was investigated by comparing watersheds with different land-use history. Whole watershed land use in the 1950s was the best predictor of present-day diversity, whereas riparian land use and watershed land use in the 1990s were comparatively poor indicators. Our findings indicate that past land-use activity, particularly agriculture, may result in long-term modifications to and reductions in aquatic diversity, regardless of reforestation of riparian zones. Preservation of habitat fragments may not be sufficient to maintain natural diversity in streams, and maintenance of such biodiversity may require conservation of much or all of the watershed.

Land use practices near tributary rivers and their influence on duckweed (Lemna obscura) bloom in the southern part of Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela: Sustainable solutions to address the issue

This study examined the relationship between land-use practices near tributary rivers in South Lake Maracaibo and the appearance of duckweed (Lemna obscura) in the lake. Four rivers were studied: The Mucujepe, Capaz, Guamo and Frio. Eight factors were assessed: rivers, sediments, erosion, soils, fertilizers, water quality, land use activities and vegetation corridors. Satellite images, official cartography, field visits and observations, water samples and personal communication with organizations involved were held to get an accurate and current assessment of the conditions. The study revealed the land-use practices surrounding the Pan-American Zone Rivers contribute to the duckweed blooming in Lake Maracaibo.

Rural Development Trends and Land Use Policy in Colorado: Contributors to Habitat Fragmentation?

Fragmentation of wildlife habitat is a primary driver of global species decline. A major contributor to habitat fragmentation in the United States is rural residential development. Rural development in Colorado is occurring at rates far greater than the national average. Additionally, the lack of state-level planning control coupled with a lack of comprehensive, effective planning tools at the local level creates conditions that contribute to habitat fragmentation in many rural counties. Greater oversight and involvement in land use planning is needed by the state level to assist county governments. This study provides five recommendations to strengthen Colorado state land use policy in order to reduce habitat fragmentation.

Naval Air Station South Weymouth reuse study: Rockland land use

Shows land use in the part of Rockland adjoining South Weymouth Naval Air Station.

Land Use and Production. 1976.

"Part I, covering land use, includes figures for the enlarged European Community for 1958 and 1965, together with those for 1973, 1974 and 1975. Provisional figures are also provided for the most important crop groups in 1976. The EUR 9 totals for 1958 and 1965 are given merely for information as the enlarged Community has been in existence only since 1 January 1973. The figures for EUR 9 for the years 1955 to 1972 may be found in the publication 'Agricultural Statistics' No 2/1974....The statistics on land use cover only the main crop area and not the secondary crop areas under associated crops and catch crops. For information on the methods used in the present document the reader is referred to the common six-language nomenclature for land use and production statistics (pages X ���XIII)."

Land Use and Production 1955-1979. 1980

Community statistics of vegetable products include data relating, on the one hand, to land use, and on the other hand to production, cultivated areas and yields of different products or groups of products, including fodder products, vegetables and fruits.