Physical properties, velocity and attenuation characteristics, and mineralogy of gabbros from ODP Hole 176-735B

Laboratory compressional wave (Vp) and shear wave (Vs) velocities were measured as a function of confining pressure for the gabbros from Hole 735B and compared to results from Leg 118. The upper 500 m of the hole has a Vp mean value of 6895 m/s measured at 200 MPa, and at 500 meters below seafloor (mbsf), Vp measurements show a mean value of 7036 m/s. Vs mean values in the same intervals are 3840 m/s and 3857 m/s, respectively. The mean Vp and Vs values obtained from log data in the upper 600 m are 6520 and 3518 m/s, respectively. These results show a general increase in velocity with depth and the velocity gradients estimate an upper mantle depth of 3.32 km. This value agrees with previous work based on dredged samples and inversion of rare element concentrations in basalts dredged from the conjugate site to the north of the Atlantis Bank. Laboratory measurements show Vp anisotropy ranging between 0.4% and 8.8%, with the majority of the samples having values less than 3.8%. Measurements of velocity anisotropy seem to be associated with zones of high crystal-plastic deformation with predominant preferred mineral orientations of plagioclase, amphiboles, and pyroxenes. These findings are consistent with results on gabbros from the Hess Deep area and suggest that plastic deformation may play an important role in the seismic properties of the lower oceanic crust. In contrast to ophiolite studies, many of the olivine gabbros show a small degree of anisotropy. Log derived Vs anisotropy shows an average of 5.8% for the upper 600 m of Hole 735B and tends to decrease with depth where the overburden pressure and the age of the crustal section suggests closure of cracks and infilling of fractures by alteration minerals. Overall the results indicate that the average shear wave splitting in Hole 735B might be influenced by preferred structural orientations and the average value of shear wave splitting may not be a maximum because structural dips are <90°. The maximum fast-wave orientation values could be influenced by structural features striking slightly oblique to this orientation or by near-field stress concentrations. However, flexural wave dispersion analyses have not been performed to confirm this hypothesis or to indicate to what extent the near-field stresses may be influencing shear wave propagation. Acoustic impedance contrasts calculated from laboratory and logging data were used to generate synthetic seismograms that aid in the interpretation of reflection profiles. Several prominent reflections produced by these calculations suggest that Fe-Ti oxides and shear zones may contribute to the reflective nature of the lower oceanic crust. Laboratory velocity attenuation (Q) measurements from below 500 m have a mean value of 35.1, which is consistent with previous vertical seismic profile (VSP) and laboratory measurements on the upper 500 m.

Chemical composition of sediment core GeoB12309-5 from the northern Arabian Sea, its pore water profile and age depth relationship as well as CTD data obtained during cruise M74/3

The Arabian Sea off the Pakistan continental margin is characterized by one of the world's largest oxygen minimum zones (OMZ). The lithology and geochemistry of a 5.3 m long gravity core retrieved from the lower boundary of the modern OMZ (956 m water depth) were used to identify late Holocene changes in oceanographic conditions and the vertical extent of the OMZ. While the lower part of the core (535 - 465 cm, 5.04 - 4.45 cal kyr BP, Unit 3) is strongly bioturbated indicating oxic bottom water conditions, the upper part of the core (284 - 0 cm, 2.87 cal kyr BP to present, Unit 1) shows distinct and well-preserved lamination, suggesting anoxic bottom waters. The transitional interval from 465 to 284 cm (4.45 - 2.87 cal kyr BP, Unit 2) contains relicts of lamination which are in part intensely bioturbated. These fluctuations in bioturbation intensity suggest repetitive changes between anoxic and oxic/suboxic bottom-water conditions between 4.45 - 2.87 cal kyr BP. Barium excess (Baex) and total organic carbon (TOC) contents do not explain whether the increased TOC contents found in Unit 1 are the result of better preservation due to low BWO concentrations or if the decreased BWO concentration is a result of increased productivity. Changes in salinity and temperature of the outflowing water from the Red Sea during the Holocene influenced the water column stratification and probably affected the depth of the lower boundary of the OMZ in the northern Arabian Sea. Even if we cannot prove certain scenarios, we propose that the observed downward shift of the lower boundary of the OMZ was also impacted by a weakened Somali Current and a reduced transport of oxygen-rich Indian Central Water into the Arabian Sea, both as a response to decreased summer insolation and the continuous southward shift of the Intertropical Convergence Zone during the late Holocene.

Mineral nitrogen from KCl extractions of soil from the Jena Experiment (Main Experiment up to 15cm depth, year 2008)

As an estimate of plant-available N, this data set contains measurements of inorganic nitrogen (NO3-N and NH4-N, the sum of which is termed mineral N or Nmin) determined by extraction with 1 M KCl solution of soil samples from the main experiment plots of a large grassland biodiversity experiment (the Jena Experiment; see further details below). In the main experiment, 82 grassland plots of 20 x 20 m were established from a pool of 60 species belonging to four functional groups (grasses, legumes, tall and small herbs). In May 2002, varying numbers of plant species from this species pool were sown into the plots to create a gradient of plant species richness (1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and 60 species) and functional richness (1, 2, 3, 4 functional groups). Plots were maintained by bi-annual weeding and mowing. Soil sampling and analysis: Five soil cores (diameter 0.01 m) were taken at a depth of 0 to 0.15 m of the mineral soil from each of the experimental plots in March and October 2008. In October 2008, also the plots of the management experiment, that altered mowing frequency and fertilized subplots (see further details below) were sampled. Samples of the soil cores per plot (subplots in case of the management experiment) were pooled during each sampling campaign. NO3-N and NH4-N concentrations were determined by extraction of soil samples with 1 M KCl solution and were measured in the soil extract with a Continuous Flow Analyzer (CFA, AutoAnalyzer, Seal, Burgess Hill, United Kingdom).

Mineral nitrogen from KCl extractions of soil from the Jena Experiment (Main Experiment up to 15cm depth, year 2006)

As an estimate of plant-available N, this data set contains measurements of inorganic nitrogen (NO3-N and NH4-N, the sum of which is termed mineral N or Nmin) determined by extraction with 1 M KCl solution of soil samples from the main experiment plots of a large grassland biodiversity experiment (the Jena Experiment; see further details below). In the main experiment, 82 grassland plots of 20 x 20 m were established from a pool of 60 species belonging to four functional groups (grasses, legumes, tall and small herbs). In May 2002, varying numbers of plant species from this species pool were sown into the plots to create a gradient of plant species richness (1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and 60 species) and functional richness (1, 2, 3, 4 functional groups). Plots were maintained by bi-annual weeding and mowing. Soil sampling and analysis: Five soil cores (diameter 0.01 m) were taken at a depth of 0 to 0.15 m of the mineral soil from each of the experimental plots in March 2006. In October 2006 also the plots of the management experiment, that altered mowing frequency and fertilized subplots (see further details below) were sampled. Measurements from the management experiment are separated into 0 to 0.08 m and 0.08 to 0.15 m. Samples of the soil cores per plot (subplots in case of the management experiment) were pooled during each sampling campaign. NO3-N and NH4-N concentrations were determined by extraction of soil samples with 1 M KCl solution and were measured in the soil extract with a Continuous Flow Analyzer (CFA, AutoAnalyzer, Seal, Burgess Hill, United Kingdom).

Mineral nitrogen from KCl extractions of soil from the Jena Experiment (Main Experiment up to 15cm depth, year 2007)

As an estimate of plant-available N, this data set contains measurements of inorganic nitrogen (NO3-N and NH4-N, the sum of which is termed mineral N or Nmin) determined by extraction with 1 M KCl solution of soil samples from the main experiment plots of a large grassland biodiversity experiment (the Jena Experiment; see further details below). In the main experiment, 82 grassland plots of 20 x 20 m were established from a pool of 60 species belonging to four functional groups (grasses, legumes, tall and small herbs). In May 2002, varying numbers of plant species from this species pool were sown into the plots to create a gradient of plant species richness (1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and 60 species) and functional richness (1, 2, 3, 4 functional groups). Plots were maintained by bi-annual weeding and mowing. Soil sampling and analysis: Five soil cores (diameter 0.01 m) were taken at a depth of 0 to 0.15 m of the mineral soil from each of the experimental plots in March and October 2007. In March and in October 2007 also the plots of the management experiment, that altered mowing frequency and fertilized subplots (see further details below) were sampled. Samples of the soil cores per plot (subplots in case of the management experiment) were pooled during each sampling campaign. NO3-N and NH4-N concentrations were determined by extraction of soil samples with 1 M KCl solution and were measured in the soil extract with a Continuous Flow Analyzer (CFA, AutoAnalyzer, Seal, Burgess Hill, United Kingdom).

Description of manganese nodules collected in a metamorphic limestone Cambrian formation near Philipsburg, Montana

In the Philipsburg district, in western Montana a low arch of a Paleozoic limestones has been cut and deformed on the east and a south sides by a small batholith of Tertiary granodiorite. The manganese deposits are confined to an area of about 2 square miles underlain by sedimentary rocks and adjacent to the granodiorite body. The ore, chiefly pyrolusite, was apparently derived from rhodochrosite that was abundant in the veins and had replaced the adjacent limestones. The oxide ore is found chiefly within 600 feet of the surface, though one small body was mined at a depth of 700 feet. Commonly these bodies are aggregates of nodules or spheroids that range in size from that of an egg to that of a coconut or larger. In some places they show an irregular texture somewhat like that of a sponge, and in others the material composing them is loose and friable and apparently structureless. Psilomelane is the principal constituent of many of the nodules, in which it forms layers that alternate with softer oxides.

Mineral nitrogen from KCl extractions of soil from the Jena Experiment (Main Experiment up to 30cm depth, year 2003)

As an estimate of plant-available N, this data set contains measurements of inorganic nitrogen (NO3-N and NH4-N, the sum of which is termed mineral N or Nmin) determined by extraction with 1 M KCl solution of soil samples from the main experiment plots of a large grassland biodiversity experiment (the Jena Experiment; see further details below). In the main experiment, 82 grassland plots of 20 x 20 m were established from a pool of 60 species belonging to four functional groups (grasses, legumes, tall and small herbs). In May 2002, varying numbers of plant species from this species pool were sown into the plots to create a gradient of plant species richness (1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and 60 species) and functional richness (1, 2, 3, 4 functional groups). Plots were maintained by bi-annual weeding and mowing. Soil sampling and analysis: Five soil cores (diameter 0.01 m) were taken at a depth of 0 to 0.15 m and 0.15 to 0.3 m of the mineral soil from each of the experimental plots in March, June, and October 2003. Samples of the soil cores per plot were pooled during each sampling campaign. NO3-N and NH4-N concentrations were determined by extraction of soil samples with 1 M KCl solution and were measured in the soil extract with a Continuous Flow Analyzer (CFA, Skalar, Breda, Netherlands).

Environmental context of all samples from the Tara Oceans Expedition (2009-2013), about depth specific features

The Tara Oceans Expedition (2009-2013) sampled the world oceans on board a 36 m long schooner, collecting environmental data and organisms from viruses to planktonic metazoans for later analyses using modern sequencing and state-of-the-art imaging technologies. Tara Oceans Data are particularly suited to study the genetic, morphological and functional diversity of plankton. The present data set provides environmental context to all samples from the Tara Oceans Expedition (2009-2013), including calculated averages of mesaurements made concurrently at the sampling location and depth, and calculated averages from climatologies (AMODIS, VGPM) and satellite products.

Nitrogen fuelling of the pelagic food web of the Tropical Atlantic

We estimated the relative contribution of atmospheric Nitrogen (N) input (wet and dry deposition and N fixation) to the epipelagic food web by measuring N isotopes of different functional groups of epipelagic zooplankton along 23°W (17°N-4°S) and 18°N (20-24°W) in the Eastern Tropical Atlantic. Results were related to water column observations of nutrient distribution and vertical diffusive flux as well as colony abundance of Trichodesmium obtained with an Underwater Vision Profiler (UVP5). The thickness and depth of the nitracline and phosphocline proved to be significant predictors of zooplankton stable N isotope values. Atmospheric N input was highest (61% of total N) in the strongly stratified and oligotrophic region between 3 and 7°N, which featured very high depth-integrated Trichodesmium abundance (up to 9.4×104 colonies m-2), strong thermohaline stratification and low zooplankton delta15N (~2 per mil). Relative atmospheric N input was lowest south of the equatorial upwelling between 3 and 5°S (27%). Values in the Guinea Dome region and north of Cape Verde ranged between 45 and 50%, respectively. The microstructure-derived estimate of the vertical diffusive N flux in the equatorial region was about one order of magnitude higher than in any other area (approximately 8 mmol m-2 d 1). At the same time, this region received considerable atmospheric N input (35% of total). In general, zooplankton delta15N and Trichodesmium abundance were closely correlated, indicating that N fixation is the major source of atmospheric N input. Although Trichodesmium is not the only N fixing organism, its abundance can be used with high confidence to estimate the relative atmospheric N input in the tropical Atlantic (r2 = 0.95). Estimates of absolute N fixation rates are two- to tenfold higher than incubation-derived rates reported for the same regions. Our approach integrates over large spatial and temporal scales and also quantifies fixed N released as dissolved inorganic and organic N. In a global analysis, it may thus help to close the gap in oceanic N budgets.

Crack mechanical failure in ceramic materials under ion irradiation: case of lithium niobate crystal

Swift heavy ion irradiation (ions with mass heavier than 15 and energy exceeding MeV/amu) transfer their energy mainly to the electronic system with small momentum transfer per collision. Therefore, they produce linear regions (columnar nano-tracks) around the straight ion trajectory, with marked modifications with respect to the virgin material, e.g., phase transition, amorphization, compaction, changes in physical or chemical properties. In the case of crystalline materials the most distinctive feature of swift heavy ion irradiation is the production of amorphous tracks embedded in the crystal. Lithium niobate is a relevant optical material that presents birefringence due to its anysotropic trigonal structure. The amorphous phase is certainly isotropic. In addition, its refractive index exhibits high contrast with those of the crystalline phase. This allows one to fabricate waveguides by swift ion irradiation with important technological relevance. From the mechanical point of view, the inclusion of an amorphous nano-track (with a density 15% lower than that of the crystal) leads to the generation of important stress/strain fields around the track. Eventually these fields are the origin of crack formation with fatal consequences for the integrity of the samples and the viability of the method for nano-track formation. For certain crystal cuts (X and Y), these fields are clearly anisotropic due to the crystal anisotropy. We have used finite element methods to calculate the stress/strain fields that appear around the ion- generated amorphous nano-tracks for a variety of ion energies and doses. A very remarkable feature for X cut-samples is that the maximum shear stress appears on preferential planes that form +/-45º with respect to the crystallographic planes. This leads to the generation of oriented surface cracks when the dose increases. The growth of the cracks along the anisotropic crystal has been studied by means of novel extended finite element methods, which include cracks as discontinuities. In this way we can study how the length and depth of a crack evolves as function of the ion dose. In this work we will show how the simulations compare with experiments and their application in materials modification by ion irradiation.

Experimental and numerical study of cracking of concrete due to reinforcement corrosion

La corrosión del acero es una de las patologías más importantes que afectan a las estructuras de hormigón armado que están expuestas a ambientes marinos o al ataque de sales fundentes. Cuando se produce corrosión, se genera una capa de óxido alrededor de la superficie de las armaduras, que ocupa un volumen mayor que el acero inicial; como consecuencia, el óxido ejerce presiones internas en el hormigón circundante, que lleva a la fisuración y, ocasionalmente, al desprendimiento del recubrimiento de hormigón. Durante los últimos años, numerosos estudios han contribuido a ampliar el conocimiento sobre el proceso de fisuración; sin embargo, aún existen muchas incertidumbres respecto al comportamiento mecánico de la capa de óxido, que es fundamental para predecir la fisuración. Por ello, en esta tesis se ha desarrollado y aplicado una metodología, para mejorar el conocimiento respecto al comportamiento del sistema acero-óxido-hormigón, combinando experimentos y simulaciones numéricas. Se han realizado ensayos de corrosión acelerada en condiciones de laboratorio, utilizando la técnica de corriente impresa. Con el objetivo de obtener información cercana a la capa de acero, como muestras se seleccionaron prismas de hormigón con un tubo de acero liso como armadura, que se diseñaron para conseguir la formación de una única fisura principal en el recubrimiento. Durante los ensayos, las muestras se equiparon con instrumentos especialmente diseñados para medir la variación de diámetro y volumen interior de los tubos, y se midió la apertura de la fisura principal utilizando un extensómetro comercial, adaptado a la geometría de las muestras. Las condiciones de contorno se diseñaron cuidadosamente para que los campos de corriente y deformación fuesen planos durante los ensayos, resultando en corrosión uniforme a lo largo del tubo, para poder reproducir los ensayos en simulaciones numéricas. Se ensayaron series con varias densidades de corriente y varias profundidades de corrosión. De manera complementaria, el comportamiento en fractura del hormigón se caracterizó en ensayos independientes, y se midió la pérdida gravimétrica de los tubos siguiendo procedimientos estándar. En todos los ensayos, la fisura principal creció muy despacio durante las primeras micras de profundidad de corrosión, pero después de una cierta profundidad crítica, la fisura se desarrolló completamente, con un aumento rápido de su apertura; la densidad de corriente influye en la profundidad de corrosión crítica. Las variaciones de diámetro interior y de volumen interior de los tubos mostraron tendencias diferentes entre sí, lo que indica que la deformación del tubo no fue uniforme. Después de la corrosión acelerada, las muestras se cortaron en rebanadas, que se utilizaron en ensayos post-corrosión. El patrón de fisuración se estudió a lo largo del tubo, en rebanadas que se impregnaron en vacío con resina y fluoresceína para mejorar la visibilidad de las fisuras bajo luz ultravioleta, y se estudió la presencia de óxido dentro de las grietas. En todas las muestras, se formó una fisura principal en el recubrimiento, infiltrada con óxido, y varias fisuras secundarias finas alrededor del tubo; el número de fisuras varió con la profundidad de corrosión de las muestras. Para muestras con la misma corrosión, el número de fisuras y su posición fue diferente entre muestras y entre secciones de una misma muestra, debido a la heterogeneidad del hormigón. Finalmente, se investigó la adherencia entre el acero y el hormigón, utilizando un dispositivo diseñado para empujar el tubo en el hormigón. Las curvas de tensión frente a desplazamiento del tubo presentaron un pico marcado, seguido de un descenso constante; la profundidad de corrosión y la apertura de fisura de las muestras influyeron notablemente en la tensión residual del ensayo. Para simular la fisuración del hormigón causada por la corrosión de las armaduras, se programó un modelo numérico. Éste combina elementos finitos con fisura embebida adaptable que reproducen la fractura del hormigón conforme al modelo de fisura cohesiva estándar, y elementos de interfaz llamados elementos junta expansiva, que se programaron específicamente para reproducir la expansión volumétrica del óxido y que incorporan su comportamiento mecánico. En el elemento junta expansiva se implementó un fenómeno de despegue, concretamente de deslizamiento y separación, que resultó fundamental para obtener localización de fisuras adecuada, y que se consiguió con una fuerte reducción de la rigidez tangencial y la rigidez en tracción del óxido. Con este modelo, se realizaron simulaciones de los ensayos, utilizando modelos bidimensionales de las muestras con elementos finitos. Como datos para el comportamiento en fractura del hormigón, se utilizaron las propiedades determinadas en experimentos. Para el óxido, inicialmente se supuso un comportamiento fluido, con deslizamiento y separación casi perfectos. Después, se realizó un ajuste de los parámetros del elemento junta expansiva para reproducir los resultados experimentales. Se observó que variaciones en la rigidez normal del óxido apenas afectaban a los resultados, y que los demás parámetros apenas afectaban a la apertura de fisura; sin embargo, la deformación del tubo resultó ser muy sensible a variaciones en los parámetros del óxido, debido a la flexibilidad de la pared de los tubos, lo que resultó fundamental para determinar indirectamente los valores de los parámetros constitutivos del óxido. Finalmente, se realizaron simulaciones definitivas de los ensayos. El modelo reprodujo la profundidad de corrosión crítica y el comportamiento final de las curvas experimentales; se comprobó que la variación de diámetro interior de los tubos está fuertemente influenciada por su posición relativa respecto a la fisura principal, en concordancia con los resultados experimentales. De la comparación de los resultados experimentales y numéricos, se pudo extraer información sobre las propiedades del óxido que de otra manera no habría podido obtenerse. Corrosion of steel is one of the main pathologies affecting reinforced concrete structures exposed to marine environments or to molten salt. When corrosion occurs, an oxide layer develops around the reinforcement surface, which occupies a greater volume than the initial steel; thus, it induces internal pressure on the surrounding concrete that leads to cracking and, eventually, to full-spalling of the concrete cover. During the last years much effort has been devoted to understand the process of cracking; however, there is still a lack of knowledge regarding the mechanical behavior of the oxide layer, which is essential in the prediction of cracking. Thus, a methodology has been developed and applied in this thesis to gain further understanding of the behavior of the steel-oxide-concrete system, combining experiments and numerical simulations. Accelerated corrosion tests were carried out in laboratory conditions, using the impressed current technique. To get experimental information close to the oxide layer, concrete prisms with a smooth steel tube as reinforcement were selected as specimens, which were designed to get a single main crack across the cover. During the tests, the specimens were equipped with instruments that were specially designed to measure the variation of inner diameter and volume of the tubes, and the width of the main crack was recorded using a commercial extensometer that was adapted to the geometry of the specimens. The boundary conditions were carefully designed so that plane current and strain fields were expected during the tests, resulting in nearly uniform corrosion along the length of the tube, so that the tests could be reproduced in numerical simulations. Series of tests were carried out with various current densities and corrosion depths. Complementarily, the fracture behavior of concrete was characterized in independent tests, and the gravimetric loss of the steel tubes was determined by standard means. In all the tests, the main crack grew very slowly during the first microns of corrosion depth, but after a critical corrosion depth it fully developed and opened faster; the current density influenced the critical corrosion depth. The variation of inner diameter and inner volume of the tubes had different trends, which indicates that the deformation of the tube was not uniform. After accelerated corrosion, the specimens were cut into slices, which were used in post-corrosion tests. The pattern of cracking along the reinforcement was investigated in slices that were impregnated under vacuum with resin containing fluorescein to enhance the visibility of cracks under ultraviolet lightening and a study was carried out to assess the presence of oxide into the cracks. In all the specimens, a main crack developed through the concrete cover, which was infiltrated with oxide, and several thin secondary cracks around the reinforcement; the number of cracks diminished with the corrosion depth of the specimen. For specimens with the same corrosion, the number of cracks and their position varied from one specimen to another and between cross-sections of a given specimen, due to the heterogeneity of concrete. Finally, the bond between the steel and the concrete was investigated, using a device designed to push the tubes of steel in the concrete. The curves of stress versus displacement of the tube presented a marked peak, followed by a steady descent, with notably influence of the corrosion depth and the crack width on the residual stress. To simulate cracking of concrete due to corrosion of the reinforcement, a numerical model was implemented. It combines finite elements with an embedded adaptable crack that reproduces cracking of concrete according to the basic cohesive model, and interface elements so-called expansive joint elements, which were specially designed to reproduce the volumetric expansion of oxide and incorporate its mechanical behavior. In the expansive joint element, a debonding effect was implemented consisting of sliding and separation, which was proved to be essential to achieve proper localization of cracks, and was achieved by strongly reducing the shear and the tensile stiffnesses of the oxide. With that model, simulations of the accelerated corrosion tests were carried out on 2- dimensional finite element models of the specimens. For the fracture behavior of concrete, the properties experimentally determined were used as input. For the oxide, initially a fluidlike behavior was assumed with nearly perfect sliding and separation; then the parameters of the expansive joint element were modified to fit the experimental results. Changes in the bulk modulus of the oxide barely affected the results and changes in the remaining parameters had a moderate effect on the predicted crack width; however, the deformation of the tube was very sensitive to variations in the parameters of oxide, due to the flexibility of the tube wall, which was crucial for indirect determination of the constitutive parameters of oxide. Finally, definitive simulations of the tests were carried out. The model reproduced the critical corrosion depth and the final behavior of the experimental curves; it was assessed that the variation of inner diameter of the tubes is highly influenced by its relative position with respect to the main crack, in accordance with the experimental observations. From the comparison of the experimental and numerical results, some properties of the mechanical behavior of the oxide were disclosed that otherwise could not have been measured.

(Table 1) Compositional variation with depth in a nodule of sediment sample RVG-10D

A detailed study of a nodule from the Somali Basin dated by 230Thexcess was correlated with the paleoceanographic events recorded in Site 236 (Leg 24) Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) cores. Tentative indications are that the phase of nodule accretion starting with the development of pillar structure at a depth of 20 mm in the nodule around 13 Ma coincides with increased Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) flow and an elevated calciumcarbonate compensation depth (CCD). The Late Miocene lowering of the CCD is represented by the mottled zones between 8 and 18 mm in the nodule is characterised by an abundant silicate component (>20%) of aeolian origin. The Miocene/Pliocene boundary (5 Ma) occurs at a depth of about 8 mm and is represented by the development of pillar structure and a minimum of aeolian dust (10.3%). The increased biological productivity of the Somali surface water since the Middle Miocene is demonstrated by the increasing Corg content of the nodule (from 0.11 to 0.19%) towards its surface.

The effect of organic mulch amendments on the physical and chemical properties and revegetation success of a saline-sodic minespoil from central Queensland, Australia

Saline-sodic clay minespoil materials excavated during open-cut coal mining in central Queensland, Australia, pose significant challenges for revegetation, particularly where suitable topsoil capping is not available. We examined the ability of sawdust or straw mulch amendments to ameliorate the adverse properties of these minespoils and improve the success of revegetation efforts. In laboratory studies, mulch application improved infiltration, increased soil moisture retention and reduced surface crust strength. In the field, mulches incorporated to a depth of 0.15 m at application rates of at least 20 t/ha straw or 80 t/ha sawdust were needed to mitigate against capillary rise of salts during drying cycles and support satisfactory vegetation cover. Further research is needed to determine whether improvements are maintained beyond the 4-year trial period reported here.

Zinc deposits and related mineralization of the Burketown mineral field, including the world-class Century Deposit, Northern Australia: Fluid inclusion and stable isotope evidence for basin fluid sources

The stratiform Century Zn-Pb deposit and the discordant Zn-Pb lode deposits of the Burketown mineral field, northern Australia, host ore and gangue minerals with primary fluid inclusions that have not been affected by the Isan orogeny, thus providing a unique opportunity to investigate the nature of the ore-forming brines. All of the deposits are hosted in shales and siltstones belonging to the Isa superbasin and comprise sphalerite, pyrite, carbonate, quartz, galena, minor chalcopyrite, and minor illite. According to Pb model ages, the main ore stage of mineralization at Century formed at I575 Ma, some 20 m.y. after deposition of the host shale sequence. Microthermometry on undeformed, primary fluid inclusions hosted in porous sphalerite shows that the Zn at Century was transported to the deposit by a homogeneous, Ca2+- and Na+-bearing brine with a salinity of 21.6 wt percent NaCl equiv. delta D-fluid of the fluid inclusion water ranges from -89 to -83 per mil, consistent with a basinal brine that evolved from meteoric water. Fluid inclusion homogenization temperatures range between 74 degrees and 125 degrees C, which are lower than the 120 degrees to 160 degrees C range calculated from vitrinite reflectance and illite crystallinity data from the deposit. This discrepancy indicates that mineralization likely formed at 50 to 85 Mpa, corresponding to a depth of 1,900 to 3,100 m. Transgressive galena-sphalerite veins that cut stratiform mineralization at Century and breccia-filled quartz-dolomite-sphalerite-galena veins in the discordant Zn-Pb lodes have Pb model ages between 1575 and 1485 Ma. Raman spectroscopy and microthermometry reveal that the primary fluid inclusions in these veins contain Ca2+, Na+. but they have lower salinities between 23 and 10 wt percent NaCl equiv and higher delta D-fluid values ranging from -89 to -61 per mil than fluid inclusions in porous sphalerite from Century. Fluid inclusion water from sphalerite in one of the lode deposits has delta O-18(fluid) values of 1.6 and 2.4 per mil, indistinguishable from delta O-18(fluid) values between -0.3 to +7.4 per mil calculated from the isotopic composition of coexisting quartz, dolomite, and illite. The trend toward lower salinities and higher delta D-fluid values relative to the earlier mineralizing fluids is attributed to mixing between the fluid that formed Century and a seawater-derived fluid from a different source. Based on seismic data from the Lawn Hill platform and paragenetic and geochemical results from the Leichhardt River fault trough to the south, diagenetic aquifers in the Underlying Calvert superbasin appear to have been the most likely sources for the fluids that formed Century and the discordant lode deposits. Paragenetically late sphalerite and calcite cut sphalerite, quartz, and dolomite in the lode deposits and contain Na+-dominated fluid inclusions with much lower salinities than their older counterparts. The isotopic composition of calcite also indicates delta O-18(fluid) from 3.3 to 10.7 per mil, which is larger than the range obtained from synmineralization minerals, supporting the idea that a unique fluid source was involved. The absolute timing of this event is unclear, but a plethora of Pb model, K-Ar, and Ar-40/Ar-39 ages between 1440 and 1300 Ma indicate that a significant volume of fluid was mobilized at this time. The deposition of the Roper superbasin from ca. 1492 +/- 4 Ma suggests that these late veins formed from fluids that may have been derived from aquifers in overlying sediments of the Roper superbasin. Clear, buck, and drusy quartz in veins unrelated to any form of Pb-Zn mineralization record the last major fluid event in the Burketown mineral field and form distinct outcrops and ridges in the district. Fluid inclusions in these veins indicate formation from a low-salinity, 300 degrees +/- 80 degrees C fluid. Temperatures approaching 300 degrees C recorded in organic matter adjacent to faults and at sequence boundaries correspond to K-Ar ages spanning 1300 to 1100 Ma, which coincides with regional hydrothermal activity in the northern Lawn Hill platform and the emplacement of the Lakeview Dolerite at the time of assemblage of the Rodinia supercontinent.