Lo permanente en lo efímero: Pabellones de Exposiciones Universales, hitos de la arquitectura de la segunda posguerra

Los Pabellones de las Exposiciones Universales suelen considerarse dentro de las arquitecturas efímeras, pero habría que puntualizar que toda construcción tiene su tiempo y su periodo de extinción pudiendo ser éstos indefinidos, lo permanente en lo efímero. Muchas de las obras míticas del siglo XX existieron sólo durante unos meses, en escenarios efímeros, modificando el curso de la arquitectura con unas pocas imágenes, lo que llevaría a cuestionar si las circunstancias por las que no han sobrevivido o lo han hecho en circunstancias poco comunes, no se deben tanto a una condición efímera sino a su carácter experimental. Determinadas Exposiciones Universales fueron plataforma para que los pabellones, hitos con los que se ha construido una parte significativa de la Historia de la Arquitectura contemporánea, pasaran a convertirse en mitos, por su distancia en el tiempo, porque ya no existen y porque a veces de ellos sólo nos queda una anticuada y limitada imaginería. Las diversas Historias de la Arquitectura ponen de manifiesto la importancia de algunos pabellones y el papel que ejercieron, ejercen y ejercerán algunos de los construidos para determinadas Exposiciones Universales, pues son el testimonio de que se mantienen vivos, permaneciendo en el tiempo, desempeñando cada uno una función, bien de base para nuevos avances tecnológicos o constructivos, bien para experimentar nuevas formas de habitar, bien para educar, bien para encumbrar a sus autores hasta entonces apenas conocidos. Tanto los que se han mantenido en pie, como los que han sido trasladados y reconstruidos en un nuevo emplazamiento, o incluso los que siguieron su destino fatal y se convirtieron en arquitecturas ausentes, pero que por lo que supusieron de innovación y experimentación, todos han permanecido vivos en la arquitectura de hoy en día. Esta tesis estudia el conjunto de factores que contribuyeron a conferirles esa condición de hito, qué tipo de publicaciones hablan de ellos, en qué términos se tratan y en qué medida los relacionan con la producción de la época y/o de su autor, qué aspectos destacan, cuáles son los valores icónicos que se han ido estableciendo con el paso del tiempo…Qué es lo que permanece. Por otra parte, también aborda en qué medida su condición de construcción efímera, y gracias a su inherente necesidad de desaparecer físicamente, favoreciendo su ausencia en el recuerdo, lo que los ha dotado de representatividad. Esto podría resultar hoy en día algo contradictorio, dado el gran valor concedido a la imagen en la sociedad actual hasta el punto de convertirse en un componente esencial de la representatividad: la imagen sustituye al recuerdo pareciendo que lo que carezca de manifestación física en realidad no existiera, hasta llegar a hacerle perder toda capacidad de representación. Sin embargo, y considerando la imagen como elemento esencial de lo icónico, la reconstrucción de los pabellones una vez concluidas las exposiciones, en muchos casos no ha hecho más que potenciar su valor como arquitecturas efímeras, ya que desposeídos de su carácter temporal, los pabellones de las exposiciones pierden su razón de ser. El Pabellón de España de Corrales y Molezún para la EXPO Bruselas’58 es un claro ejemplo de ello, como se mostrará en el desarrollo de la tesis. En la tesis se exponen los distintos casos de los pabellones elegidos, rastreando, fundamentalmente en las publicaciones periódicas, el papel que en cada uno de ellos ejerció su destino final que, a pesar de no ser el objetivo o fin de la presente tesis, sí podría haber contribuido en algunos casos a dotarle de esa categoría de hito en la historia de la arquitectura. Se trata en definitiva de rastrear las vicisitudes que los han conducido a su condición de referentes arquitectónicos, de hitos de la Historia de la Arquitectura. El estudio se centra en Pabellones de las Exposiciones Universales de Bruselas’58, Montreal’67 y Osaka’70 por dos motivos fundamentales: el primero, su catalogación por el Bureau International des Expositions (BIE) como Exposiciones Universales de 1ª categoría; y el segundo, el período en el que se celebraron, período comprendido entre los años 1945 a 1970, años de profundos y determinantes cambios en la arquitectura y en los que tiene lugar el desarrollo y posterior revisión de la modernidad tras la 2ª Guerra Mundial. Se analiza la trayectoria bibliográfica de los pabellones más nombrados de estas tres Exposiciones Universales que son: de Bruselas ’58, el Pabellón de la República Federal de Alemania, de Egon Eiermann y Sep Ruf; el Pabellón Philips de Le Corbusier, y el Pabellón de España, de José Antonio Corrales y Ramón Molezún; de Montreal ’67, el Pabellón de la República Federal de Alemania, de Frei Otto, y el Pabellón de Estados Unidos, de Richard Buckminster Fuller; y de Osaka ’70, el Theme Pavilion, de Kenzo Tange, el Takara Beautilion, de Kisho Kurokawa, y el Pabellón del Grupo Fuji, de Yutaka Murata. Mediante el análisis se detecta que, ya en las revistas coetáneas a las exposiciones, estos pabellones se señalaban como edificios importantes para la historia de la arquitectura futura. Hecho que se constata con la aparición de los mismos en las historias, incluso en las más recientes, lo que demuestra su condición de hitos en la Historia de la Arquitectura ya consolidada. ABSTRACT Pavilions of the Universal Exhibitions are often considered as ephemeral architecture. However it is worth mentioning that every construction has its time and its extinction period and both of them could be indefinite/infinite, the permanent in the ephemeral. Many of the iconic works of the twentieth century lasted only for a few months, in ephemeral scenarios, changing the course of architecture but not with many images. This leads to question whether their survival under special circumstances or their extinction is mainly due to their experimental nature, and not so much to their ephemeral condition. Pavilions are at the basis of a significant part of the history of contemporary architecture. Specific Universal Exhibitions served as platforms for these landmarks to become myths, be it because of their endurance, or because they no longer exist, or even because in some cases we only have a limited and outdated imagery of them. The different Histories of Architecture highlight the importance of some pavilions and the influence they have had, have and will have some of those that were built for particular Universal Exhibitions. They are a live testimony, lasting over time, playing a specific role as basis for new technological or constructive breakthroughs; to experience new ways of living; or to educate or to raise the profile of their authors hitherto little known. Thanks to their experimental or innovative approach, some pavilions enduring overtime or that have been moved and rebuilt in a new location, or even those that followed their fate and became absent architectures, are still alive in today’s architecture. This thesis analyses the set of elements that contributed to confer the status of landmark to pavilions: what kind of publications speak of them; how they are referred to and the extent to which they are linked to their contemporary production time and / or to their author; what are elements that make them stand out; what are the iconic values that have been established as time goes by and what are those that are still valid…What is it that remains. It also assesses to what extend the condition of pavilion constructions is ephemeral. And finally, what confers them representativeness, giving their inherent need to physically disappear, favoring their absence in the memory. Today this may result somewhat contradictory as the high value of images in contemporary society has made them an essential component of representativeness. They replace remembrances to the point that it seems that what lacks physical manifestation doesn’t exist anymore, and therefore loses representation capacity. However, and considering images as an essential element of what is iconic, in most cases the reconstruction of pavilions upon completion of the exhibitions has leveraged their value as ephemeral architectures; although once deprived of their temporary character, they would lose their reason to exist. The Pavilion of Spain Corrales and Molezún for the Brusels'58 EXPO is a clear example of this, as described in the development of this document. This thesis explores the case of specific pavilions and assesses the role each one had in their final destination, by mainly tracking them in regular publications. Even though the latter is not the objective or the purpose of this thesis, the final destination of these pavilions may have contributed in some cases to grant them their landmark status in the history of architecture. Actually, this thesis is about tracking the events that have led to grant these pavilions their condition as architectural references, as landmark in the history of architecture. The study focuses on pavilions of the Universal Exhibition Brussels'58, Montreal'67 and Osaka'70 for two main reasons: first, their classification by the Bureau International des Expositions (BIE) and Universal Exhibitions 1st category; and second, the period in which they were held, from 1945 to 1970, a time of profound and decisive changes in the architecture and in the development and subsequent revision of modernity after the II World. It analyzes the bibliographic path of the most cited pavilions in the three Universal Exhibitions: in Brussels '58, the pavilion of the RFA by Egon Eiermann and Sep Rup, the pavilion of Philips by Le Corbusier and the Spain pavilion from José Antonio Corrales and Ramón Molezún; in Montreal '67 the pavilion of RFA by Frei Otto and the United States pavilion by Richard Buckminster Fuller; and in Osaka '70, the Theme Pavilion by Kenzo Tange, the Takara Beautilion by Kisho Kurokawa and the Fuji Group pavilion by Yutaka Murata. Through the analysis it is noticeable that in the contemporary publications to the exhibitions, these pavilions were already signaled out as relevant buildings to the future architecture history. The fact that they became part of the history themselves, even in the most recent times, is a prove of their condition as milestones of the consolidated History of Architecture.

La construcción de la ficción : espacio arquitectónico - espacio cinematográfico

Desde hace años se discute el concepto de realidad, tal como se concebía tradicionalmente, incluso llegando a dudar de la existencia de esa realidad. El espacio real también se cuestiona, pero es indudable que el ser humano experimenta los espacios naturales y artificiales; y entre estos últimos el arquitectónico, dentro del que se engloba el del espectador, relacionado con el espectáculo. Este espacio del espectador ha sufrido transformaciones según los espectáculos que se han ido sucediendo en la historia y seguirá modificándose y hoy en día coincide con entornos que antes no se empleaban para el espectáculo, ya que éste puede desarrollarse en cualquier lugar. El espacio escenográfico, propio del espectáculo, que se proyecta y construye con las normas de la escenografía, se ha ido completando de distintas maneras según el tipo de espectáculo y está relacionado con el arquitectónico gracias al movimiento, porque ambos, se pueden recorrer, físicamente o a través de la mediación de los creadores de los espectáculos; lo que implica una clasificación del espacio escenográfico cinético, según el movimiento. Para poder analizar ese espacio escenográfico cinético en profundidad y sentar bases para su estudio, se establece una tipología que denomina a cada una de las clasificaciones establecidas por categorías. Los instrumentos son necesarios para proyectar y construir el espacio escenográfico, algunos coinciden con los arquitectónicos, pero generalmente son diferentes y a su vez específicos según los distintos espectáculos. Se describen y catalogan para tener la posibilidad de saber cómo usarlos y así poder idear ese espacio. Los espacios arquitectónicos y espectaculares, se crean mediante el proyecto que según cada disciplina tiene particularidades diferentes. El principal objetivo del proyecto del espacio escenográfico es servir a la ficción y en general modificar y mejorar ese espectáculo, teniendo en la actualidad aspectos comunes con el espacio arquitectónico. La construcción del espacio arquitectónico hoy en día emplea técnicas y materiales con los que también se construye el espacio escenográfico. El espacio escenográfico cinético se puede construir además con técnicas propias que se definen y clasifican, incluyendo las nuevas composiciones de imágenes digitales. Según dónde se construye y la función que cumple lo construido en la ficción, surgen dos tipologías que también se analizan y definen. El objeto de la escenografía y la arquitectura es la creación de espacios que tienen características comunes, el espacio escenográfico también posee características específicas, que no existen en el arquitectónico. Así mismo las tipologías, los instrumentos, el proyecto y la construcción, difieren entre los dos espacios. Lo real se ha convertido en espectáculo, el espectáculo se proyecta y construye con las leyes y reglas de la escenografía, luego desde la arquitectura se han de conocer estas leyes y reglas, porque también sirven para construir lo real. ABSTRACT The reality is being questioned, even going so far as to doubt its existence; real space is also questioned, but the human being experiences the natural and artificial spaces; and amongst the latter the architectural, within which includes the performance one, related to the show. This performance space has been transformed according to the shows that have been happening in history and will continue modifying. Nowadays, it coincides with environments not previously employed for the show, because it can occur anywhere. The scenographic space, which belongs to the performance, is projected and built with the rules of the scenography. It has been completed in different ways depending on the type of show and is related to the architectural space thanks to movement, because both be travelled through, physically or through the mediation of the creators of the shows; implying a classification of the scenographic space, according to this movement. A typology which refers to each kinetic scenographic space based on classifications established by categories is essential to analyze deeply and lay the foundations to study this space. Instruments are necessary in order to project and build the scenographic space. Some coincide with the architectural ones, but are generally different and specific according to different performances. The instruments are described and catalogued to be able to know how to use them and to devise those spaces. Architectural and performance spaces are created by the project and have different characteristics according to each discipline. The main objective of the scenographic space project is to serve fiction and generally modify and improve the performance, which also happens today with the architectural space. The construction of architectural space nowadays employs techniques and materials with which the scenographic space is also constructed. The kinetic scenographic space can also be built with its own techniques that are defined and classified, including new compositions of digital images. Two types of spaces emerge depending on where they are built and the role played by this construction in fiction, which are also discussed and defined. The purpose of scenography and architecture is the creation of spaces that have common characteristics. The scenographic space also has specific characteristics which don’t exist in the architectural one. Also the typologies, the instruments, the project and the construction differ between the two spaces. Reality has become performance, the performance is projected and is built with the laws and rules of scenography, and then architecture must know these laws and rules, because they serve to construct reality.

Quantifying the relationship between drainage networks at hillslope scale and particle size distribution at pedon scale

Nowadays, translating information about hydrologic and soil properties and processes across scales has emerged as a major theme in soil science and hydrology, and suitable theories for upscaling or downscaling hydrologic and soil information are being looked forward. The recognition of low-order catchments as self-organized systems suggests the existence of a great amount of links at different scales between their elements. The objective of this work was to research in areas of homogeneous bedrock material, the relationship between the hierarchical structure of the drainage networks at hillslope scale and the heterogeneity of the particle-size distribution at pedon scale. One of the most innovative elements in this work is the choice of the parameters to quantify the organization level of the studied features. The fractal dimension has been selected to measure the hierarchical structure of the drainage networks, while the Balanced Entropy Index (BEI) has been the chosen parameter to quantify the heterogeneity of the particle-size distribution from textural data. These parameters have made it possible to establish quantifiable relationships between two features attached to different steps in the scale range. Results suggest that the bedrock lithology of the landscape constrains the architecture of the drainage networks developed on it and the particle soil distribution resulting in the fragmentation processes.

Physically-sound simulation of low-velocity impact on fiber reinforced laminates

A high-fidelity virtual tool for the numerical simulation of low-velocity impact damage in unidirectional composite laminates is proposed. A continuum material model for the simulation of intraply damage phenomena is implemented in a numerical scheme as a user subroutine of the commercially available Abaqus finite element package. Delaminations are simulated using of cohesive surfaces. The use of structured meshes, aligned with fiber directions allows the physically-sound simulation of matrix cracks parallel to fiber directions, and their interaction with the development of delaminations. The implementation of element erosion criteria and the application of intraply and interlaminar friction allow for the simulation of fiber splits and their entanglement, which in turn results in permanent indentation in the impacted laminate. It is shown that this simulation strategy gives sound results for impact energies bellow and above the Barely Visible Impact Damage threshold, up to laminate perforation conditions

Quantifying the relationship between drainage networks at hillslope scale and particle size distribution at pedon scale

Nowadays, translating information about hydrologic and soil properties and processes across scales has emerged as a major theme in soil science and hydrology, and suitable theories for upscaling or downscaling hydrologic and soil information are being looked forward. The recognition of low-order catchments as self-organized systems suggests the existence of a great amount of links at different scales between their elements. The objective of this work was to research in areas of homogeneous bedrock material, the relationship between the hierarchical structure of the drainage networks at hillslope scale and the heterogeneity of the particle-size distribution at pedon scale. One of the most innovative elements in this work is the choice of the parameters to quantify the organization level of the studied features. The fractal dimension has been selected to measure the hierarchical structure of the drainage networks, while the Balanced Entropy Index (BEI) has been the chosen parameter to quantify the heterogeneity of the particle-size distribution from textural data. These parameters have made it possible to establish quantifiable relationships between two features attached to different steps in the scale range. Results suggest that the bedrock lithology of the landscape constrains the architecture of the drainage networks developed on it and the particle soil distribution resulting in the fragmentation processes.

Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of the Conventional Façade SOS Natura and the Natural Water Tank Façade

The construction industry produces great environmental impacts to the planet. In order to tackle this problem, the European Union has put into effect Regulation No 305/2011, which compels the construction products manufacturers to carry out environmental performance studies of these products and thus make public the impact they cause on the environment. The aim of this research is to make known the environmental impacts of the SOS Natura Conventional Façade (CF) solution, obtained within the research project "SOS Natura, Vegetal Architectural Solutions" developed by the Department of Construction and Technology in Architecture of the School of Architecture of the Technical University of Madrid (Spain). In addition, we report an environmental comparative with the Natural Water Tank Façade (NWTF), studied previously by the same work group and included in the same research project.We present as well an uncertainty analysis for both façades. Following the study conducted we conclude that the NWTF profile has a slightly better environmental behaviour when compared to the CF profile for the entire life cycle in most of the impact categories analysed in this study. However it should also be noted that, in detail and at stage level, the NWTF presents a higher environmental impact than the CF.

Fostering English-taught higher education programs in a Spanish university: the "TechEnglish" innovative project

In recent years, coinciding with adjustments to the Bologna process, many European universities have attempted to improve their international profile by increasing course offerings in English. According to the Institute of International Education (IIE), Spain has notably increased its English-taught higher education programs, ranking fifth in the list of European countries by number of English-taught Master's programs in 2013. This article presents the goals and preliminary results of an on-going innovative education project (TechEnglish) that aims to promote course offerings in English at the Technical University of Madrid (Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, UPM). The UPM is the oldest and largest of all Technical Universities in Spain. It offers graduate and postgraduate programs that cover all the engineering disciplines as well as architecture. Currently, the UPM has no specific bilingual/multilingual program to promote teaching in English, although there is an Educational Model Whitepaper (with a focus on undergraduate degrees) that promotes the development of activities like an International Semester or a unique shared curriculum. The TechEnglish project is an attempt to foster courses taught in English at 7 UPM Technical Schools, including students and 80 faculty members. Four tasks were identified: (1) to design a university wide framework to increase course offerings, (2) to identify administrative difficulties, (3) to increase visibility of courses offered, and (4) to disseminate the results of the project. First, to design a program we analyzed existing programs at other Spanish universities, and other projects and efforts already under way at the UPM. A total of 13 plans were analyzed and classified according to their relation with students (learning), professors (teaching), administration, course offerings, other actors/institutions within the university (e.g., language departments), funds and projects, dissemination activities, mobility plans and quality control. Second, to begin to identify administrative and organizational difficulties in the implementation of teaching in English, we first estimated the current and potential course offerings at the undergraduate level at the UPM using a survey (student, teacher and administrative demand, level of English and willingness to work in English). Third, to make the course offerings more attractive for both Spanish and international students we examined the way the most prestigious universities in Spain and in Europe try to improve the visibility of their academic offerings in English. Finally, to disseminate the results of the project we created a web page and a workspace on the Moodle education platform and prepared conferences and workshops within the UPM. Preliminary results show that increasing course offerings in English is an important step to promote the internationalization of the University. The main difficulties identified at the UPM were related to how to acknowledge/certify the departments, teachers or students involved in English courses, how students should register for the courses, how departments should split and schedule the courses (Spanish and English), and the lack of qualified personnel. A concerted effort could be made to increase the visibility of English-taught programs offered on-line.

A gene cluster for macrolide antibiotic biosynthesis in Streptomyces venezuelae: Architecture of metabolic diversity

In a survey of microbial systems capable of generating unusual metabolite structural variability, Streptomyces venezuelae ATCC 15439 is notable in its ability to produce two distinct groups of macrolide antibiotics. Methymycin and neomethymycin are derived from the 12-membered ring macrolactone 10-deoxymethynolide, whereas narbomycin and pikromycin are derived from the 14-membered ring macrolactone, narbonolide. This report describes the cloning and characterization of the biosynthetic gene cluster for these antibiotics. Central to the cluster is a polyketide synthase locus (pikA) that encodes a six-module system comprised of four multifunctional proteins, in addition to a type II thioesterase (TEII). Immediately downstream is a set of genes for desosamine biosynthesis (des) and macrolide ring hydroxylation. The study suggests that Pik TEII plays a role in forming a metabolic branch through which polyketides of different chain length are generated, and the glycosyl transferase (encoded by desVII) has the ability to catalyze glycosylation of both the 12- and 14-membered ring macrolactones. Moreover, the pikC-encoded P450 hydroxylase provides yet another layer of structural variability by introducing regiochemical diversity into the macrolide ring systems. The data support the notion that the architecture of the pik gene cluster as well as the unusual substrate specificity of particular enzymes contributes to its ability to generate four macrolide antibiotics.

The orientation of the AP-1 heterodimer on DNA strongly affects transcriptional potency

Activation of gene transcription in eukaryotes requires the cooperative assembly of an initiation complex containing many protein subunits. The necessity that these components contact each other and the promoter/enhancer in defined ways suggests that their spatial arrangement might influence the activation response. Indeed, growing evidence indicates that DNA architecture can profoundly affect transcriptional potency. Much less is known about the influence of protein architecture on transcriptional activation. Here, we examine the architectural dependence of activator function through the analysis of matched pairs of AP-1•DNA complexes differing only in their orientation. Mutation of a critical Arg residue in the basic-leucine zipper domain of either Fos or Jun yielded single point-mutant heterodimers that bind DNA in a single defined orientation, as determined directly by native chemical ligation/affinity cleavage; by contrast, the corresponding wild-type protein binds DNA as a roughly equal mixture of two isomeric orientations, which are related by subunit interchange. The stereochemistry of the point-mutant heterodimers could be switched by inversion of a C•G base pair in the center of the AP-1 site, thus providing access to both fixed orientational isomers. Yeast reporter gene assays consistently revealed that one orientational isomer activates transcription at least 10-fold more strongly than the other. These results suggest that protein architecture, especially the spatial relationship of the activation domain to the promoter, can exert a powerful influence on activator potency.

p53-induced DNA bending and twisting: p53 tetramer binds on the outer side of a DNA loop and increases DNA twisting

DNA binding activity of p53 is crucial for its tumor suppressor function. Our recent studies have shown that four molecules of the DNA binding domain of human p53 (p53DBD) bind the response elements with high cooperativity and bend the DNA. By using A-tract phasing experiments, we find significant differences between the bending and twisting of DNA by p53DBD and by full-length human wild-type (wt) p53. Our data show that four subunits of p53DBD bend the DNA by 32–36°, whereas wt p53 bends it by 51–57°. The directionality of bending is consistent with major groove bends at the two pentamer junctions in the consensus DNA response element. More sophisticated phasing analyses also demonstrate that p53DBD and wt p53 overtwist the DNA response element by ≈35° and ≈70°, respectively. These results are in accord with molecular modeling studies of the tetrameric complex. Within the constraints imposed by the protein subunits, the DNA can assume a range of conformations resulting from correlated changes in bend and twist angles such that the p53–DNA tetrameric complex is stabilized by DNA overtwisting and bending toward the major groove at the CATG tetramers. This bending is consistent with the inherent sequence-dependent anisotropy of the duplex. Overall, the four p53 moieties are placed laterally in a staggered array on the external side of the DNA loop and have numerous interprotein interactions that increase the stability and cooperativity of binding. The novel architecture of the p53 tetrameric complex has important functional implications including possible p53 interactions with chromatin.

NMR structures of three single-residue variants of the human prion protein

The NMR structures of three single-amino acid variants of the C-terminal domain of the human prion protein, hPrP(121–230), are presented. In hPrP(M166V) and hPrP(R220K) the substitution is with the corresponding residue in murine PrP, and in hPrP(S170N) it is with the corresponding Syrian hamster residue. All three substitutions are in the surface region of the structure of the cellular form of PrP (PrPC) that is formed by the C-terminal part of helix 3, with residues 218–230, and a loop of residues 166–172. This molecular region shows high species variability and has been implicated in specific interactions with a so far not further characterized “protein X,” and it is related to the species barrier for transmission of prion diseases. As expected, the three variant hPrP(121–230) structures have the same global architecture as the previously determined wild-type bovine, human, murine, and Syrian hamster prion proteins, but with the present study two localized “conformational markers” could be related with single amino acid exchanges. These are the length and quality of definition of helix 3, and the NMR-observability of the residues in the loop 166–172. Poor definition of the C-terminal part of helix 3 is characteristic for murine PrP and has now been observed also for hPrP(R220K), and NMR observation of the complete loop 166–172 has so far been unique for Syrian hamster PrP and is now also documented for hPrP(S170N).

SURVEY AND SUMMARY: Recent advances in the elucidation of the mechanisms of action of ribozymes

The cleavage of RNA can be accelerated by a number of factors. These factors include an acidic group (Lewis acid) or a basic group that aids in the deprotonation of the attacking nucleophile, in effect enhancing the nucleophilicity of the nucleophile; an acidic group that can neutralize and stabilize the leaving group; and any environment that can stabilize the pentavalent species that is either a transition state or a short-lived intermediate. The catalytic properties of ribozymes are due to factors that are derived from the complicated and specific structure of the ribozyme–substrate complex. It was postulated initially that nature had adopted a rather narrowly defined mechanism for the cleavage of RNA. However, recent findings have clearly demonstrated the diversity of the mechanisms of ribozyme-catalyzed reactions. Such mechanisms include the metal-independent cleavage that occurs in reactions catalyzed by hairpin ribozymes and the general double-metal-ion mechanism of catalysis in reactions catalyzed by the Tetrahymena group I ribozyme. Furthermore, the architecture of the complex between the substrate and the hepatitis delta virus ribozyme allows perturbation of the pKa of ring nitrogens of cytosine and adenine. The resultant perturbed ring nitrogens appear to be directly involved in acid/base catalysis. Moreover, while high concentrations of monovalent metal ions or polyamines can facilitate cleavage by hammerhead ribozymes, divalent metal ions are the most effective acid/base catalysts under physiological conditions.

Mutations in the rotated abdomen locus affect muscle development and reveal an intrinsic asymmetry in Drosophila.

In bilateral animals, the left and right sides of the body usually present asymmetric structures, the genetic bases of whose generation are still largely unknown [CIBA Foundation (1991) Biological Asymmetry and Handedness, CIBA Foundation Symposium 162 (Wiley, New York), pp. 1-327]. In Drosophila melanogaster, mutations in the rotated abdomen (rt) locus cause a clockwise helical rotation of the body. Even null alleles are viable but exhibit defects in embryonic muscle development, rotation of the whole larval body, and helical staggering of cuticular patterns in abdominal segments of the adult. rotated abdomen is expressed in the embryonic mesoderm and midgut but not in the ectoderm; it encodes a putative integral membrane glycoprotein (homologous to key yeast mannosyltransferases). Mesodermal cells defective in O-glycosylation lead to an impaired larval muscular system. We propose that the staggering of the adult abdominal segments would be a consequence of the relaxation of intrinsic rotational torque of muscle architecture, preventing the colateral alignment of the segmental histoblast cells during their proliferation at metamorphosis.

Solution structure of the Shc SH2 domain complexed with a tyrosine-phosphorylated peptide from the T-cell receptor.

She is a widely expressed adapter protein that plays an important role in signaling via a variety of cell surface receptors and has been implicated in coupling the stimulation of growth factor, cytokine, and antigen receptors to the Ras signaling pathway. She interacts with several tyrosine-phosphorylated receptors through its C-terminal SH2 domain, and one of the mechanisms of T-cell receptor-mediated Ras activation involves the interaction of the Shc SH2 domain with the tyrosine-phosphorylated zeta chain of the T-cell receptor. Here we describe a high-resolution NMR structure of the Shc SH2 domain complexed to a phosphopeptide (GHDGLpYQGLSTATK) corresponding to a portion of the zeta chain of the T-cell receptor. Although the overall architecture of the protein is similar to other SH2 domains, distinct structural differences were observed in the smaller beta-sheet, BG loop, (pY + 3) phosphopeptide-binding site, and relative position of the bound phosphopeptide.

Carbohydrate gluing, an architectural mechanism in the supramolecular structure of an annelid giant hemoglobin.

We report a carbohydrate-dependent supramolecular architecture in the extracellular giant hemoglobin (Hb) from the marine worm Perinereis aibuhitensis; we call this architectural mechanism carbohydrate gluing. This study is an extension of our accidental discovery of deterioration in the form of the Hb caused by a high concentration of glucose. The giant Hbs of annelids are natural supramolecules consisting of about 200 polypeptide chains that associate to form a double-layered hexagonal structure. This Hb has 0.5% (wt) carbohydrates, including mannose, xylose, fucose, galactose, glucose, N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc), and N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc). Using carbohydrate-staining assays, in conjunction with two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, we found that two types of linker chains (L1 and L2; the nomenclature of the Hb subunits followed that for another marine worm, Tylorrhynchus heterochaetus) contained carbohydrates with both GlcNAc and GalNAc. Furthermore, two types of globins (a and A) have only GlcNAc-containing carbohydrates, whereas the other types of globins (b and B) had no carbohydrates. Monosaccharides including mannose, fucose, glucose, galactose, GlcNAc, and GalNAc reversibly dissociated the intact form of the Hb, but the removal of carbohydrate with N-glycanase resulted in irreversible dissociation. These results show that carbohydrate acts noncovalently to glue together the components to yield the complete quaternary supramolecular structure of the giant Hb. We suggest that this carbohydrate gluing may be mediated through lectin-like carbohydrate-binding by the associated structural chains ("linkers").