Application of the nZEB methodology in the retrofitting of a typical Portuguese dwelling from the 60's.

Buildings and the whole built environment are in a key role when societies are mitigating climate change and adapting to its consequences. More than 50% of the existing residential buildings in EU-25 were built before 1970. Thus, these buildings are of significant importance in reducing energy consumption and CO2 emissions. The existence of more nearly zero energy buildings (nZEB) is a possible solution for this problem. This study aims to analyze the application of the nZEB methodology in the retrofitting of a typical Portuguese dwelling build in 1950. It was shown that the primary energy used can be reduced to a very low value (11,95 kWhep/m2.y) in comparison with the reference consumption (69,15 kWhep/m2.y), with the application of the best construction techniques together with the use of energy from on-site renewable sources.

“NET ZERO BUILDINGS” – APLICAÇÃO DO CONCEITO A UM EDIFÍCIO EXISTENTE

Os edifícios de balanço energético nulo (NZEB - Net-Zero Energy Building) e/ou quase nulo (nZEB), têm vindo a ganhar crescente atenção desde a publicação da diretiva europeia 2010/31/EU [15]. Em Portugal, com a introdução do Decreto-Lei n.º118/2013, dá o primeiro passo para os edifícios com necessidades quase nulas de energia. Os novos edifícios licenciados após 31 dezembro de 2020, ou após 31 de dezembro de 2018 no caso de edifícios públicos, serão edifícios com necessidades quase nulas de energia. O objetivo do trabalho descrito neste artigo consiste na aplicação do conceito ”Net Zero Energy Building”, ao edifício existente do Instituto Superior Politécnico Gaya (ISPGaya), em Vila Nova de Gaia, com o intuito de analisar a viabilidade de otimização de energia e a metodologia deste conceito ao edifício, com recurso a ferramentas de simulação. Neste trabalho efetuámos uma simulação energética do edifício, através do DesignBuilder®, que servirá como termo de comparação para outras simulações. Serão delineadas as especificações a implementar no edifício por forma a ser considerado Net Zero Energy Building, com alterações na simulação do mesmo de acordo com as novas especificações. Por último, será feita a comparação técnica, financeira e ambiental da solução NZEB encontrada. Através das várias simulações energéticas ao edifício, conclui-se que é possível baixar as necessidades energéticas do edifício através de medidas de eficiência energética, em especial na iluminação e que os resultados obtidos, apesar de ser viável a implementação do conceito Net Zero Energy Building, traduzem um esforço financeiro e algumas condicionantes para a sua concretização.

Convergência para NZEB de um edifício classificado

Dissertação para obtenção do grau de Mestre em Engenharia Civil na Área de Edificações

NZEB: um desafio para a engenharia civil

Trabalho Final de Mestrado para obtenção do grau de Mestre em Engenharia Civil

Estudo experimental de um sistema BIPV/T-PCM

A União Europeia tem dado cada vez mais enfoque à eficiência energética nos edifícios e à sua capacidade de produção de energia, tendo lançado a directiva “Energy Performance of Buildings Directive” com o intuito de que até 31 de Dezembro de 2018 todos os edifícios novos sejam “nZEB-nearly Zero Energy Building”, o que significa que devem por um lado diminuir o seu consumo energético, aumentando a sua eficiência, e por outro lado produzir localmente e através de fontes de energias renováveis toda, ou quase toda, a energia de que necessitam. A presente tese está integrada no Projecto “Frame – Prefabricated systems (modules) for low-energy buildings: design, prototyping and testing” (Ref: PTDC/AURAQI-AQI/117782/2010) que está a ser desenvolvido na Unidade de Eficiência Energética do Laboratório Nacional de Energia e Geologia (LNEG). Neste trabalho é desenvolvido e analisado um sistema BIPV/T-PCM (Building Integrated Photovoltaic Thermal – Phase Change Materials) que engloba todo um novo conceito de captação, armazenamento e gestão da energia solar em fachadas. Este sistema é composto por um módulo fotovoltaico, uma bateria de PCM (Materiais de Mudança de Fase) e todo um sistema de fluxo de ar que permite a gestão da energia colectada e armazenada. Foi também desenvolvido teoricamente um código de gestão energética para a manipulação do sistema. O sistema em estudo apoia-se em três objectivos principais: aquecer no inverno; arrefecer no verão; e aumentar a eficiência do PV arrefecendo-o. Na sequência do trabalho realizado verificou-se que o conceito do sistema em estudo alcança alguns dos objectivos propostos, tendo ainda potencial para se continuar o seu desenvolvimento. O sistema em estudo é um sistema inovador, e como tal está a ser registada uma patente com base no conceito desenvolvido.

ADVENTURES IN FRIEDMANN COSMOLOGIES---INTERACTION OF POSITIVE ENERGY DENSITIES WITH NEGATIVE ENERGY DENSITIES AND CURVATURE OF THE UNIVERSE

In this report we will investigate the effect of negative energy density in a classic Friedmann cosmology. Although never measured and possibly unphysical, the evolution of a Universe containing a significant cosmological abundance of any of a number of hypothetical stable negative energy components is explored. These negative energy (Ω < 0) forms include negative phantom energy (w<-1), negative cosmological constant (w=-1), negative domain walls (w=-2/3), negative cosmic strings (w= -1/3), negative mass (w=0), negative radiation (w=1/3), and negative ultra-light (w > 1/3). Assuming that such universe components generate pressures as perfect fluids, the attractive or repulsive nature of each negative energy component is reviewed. The Friedmann equations can only be balanced when negative energies are coupled to a greater magnitude of positive energy or positive curvature, and minimal cases of both of these are reviewed. The future and fate of such universes in terms of curvature, temperature, acceleration, and energy density are reviewed including endings categorized as a Big Crunch, Big Void, or Big Rip and further qualified as "Warped", "Curved", or "Flat", "Hot" versus "Cold", "Accelerating" versus" Decelerating" versus "Coasting". A universe that ends by contracting to zero energy density is termed a Big Poof. Which contracting universes ``bounce" in expansion and which expanding universes ``turnover" into contraction are also reviewed. The name by which the ending of the Universe is mentioned is our own nomenclature.

A prototype from the Solar Decathlon Competition becomes an educational building in sustanaible architecture

In 2008, the City Council of Rivas-Vaciamadrid (Spain) decided to promote the construction of “Rivasecopolis”, a complex of sustainable buildings in which a new prototype of a zero-energy house would become the office of the Energy Agency. According to the initiative of the City Council, it was decided to recreate the dwelling prototype “Magic-box” which entered the 2005 Solar Decathlon Competition. The original project has been adapted to a new necessities programme, by adding the necessary spaces that allows it to work as an office. A team from university has designed and carried out the direction of the construction site. The new Solar House is conceived as a “testing building”. It is going to become the space for attending citizens in all questions about saving energy, energy efficiency and sustainable construction, having a permanent small exhibition space additional to the working places for the information purpose. At the same time, the building includes the use of experimental passive architecture systems and a monitoring and control system. Collected data will be sent to University to allow developing research work about the experimental strategies included in the building. This paper will describe and analyze the experience of transforming a prototype into a real durable building and the benefits for both university and citizens in learning about sustainability with the building

La implementación arquitectónica de los acristalamientos activos con agua circulante, y su contribución en edificios de consumo de energía casi nulo

La presente Tesis Doctoral evalúa la contribución de una fachada activa, constituida por acristalamientos con circulación de agua, en el rendimiento energético del edificio. Con especial énfasis en la baja afección sobre su imagen, su integración ha de favorecer la calificación del edificio con el futuro estándar de Edificio de consumo de Energía Casi Nulo (EECN). El propósito consiste en cuantificar su aportación a limitar la demanda de climatización, como solución de fachada transparente acorde a las normas de la energía del 2020. En el primer capítulo se introduce el planteamiento del problema. En el segundo capítulo se desarrollan la hipótesis y el objetivo fundamental de la investigación. Para tal fin, en el tercer capítulo, se revisa el estado del arte de la tecnología y de la investigación científica, mediante el análisis de la literatura de referencia. Se comparan patentes, prototipos, sistemas comerciales asimilables, investigaciones en curso en Universidades, y proyectos de investigación y desarrollo, sobre envolventes que incorporan acristalamientos con circulación de agua. El método experimental, expuesto en el cuarto capítulo, acomete el diseño, la fabricación y la monitorización de un prototipo expuesto, durante ciclos de ensayos, a las condiciones climáticas de Madrid. Esta fase ha permitido adquirir información precisa sobre el rendimiento del acristalamiento en cada orientación de incidencia solar, en las distintas estaciones del año. En paralelo, se aborda el desarrollo de modelos teóricos que, mediante su asimilación a soluciones multicapa caracterizadas en las herramientas de simulación EnergyPlus y IDA-ICE (IDA Indoor Climate and Energy), reproducen el efecto experimental. En el quinto capítulo se discuten los resultados experimentales y teóricos, y se analiza la respuesta del acristalamiento asociado a un determinado volumen y temperatura del agua. Se calcula la eficiencia en la captación de la radiación y, mediante la comparativa con un acristalamiento convencional, se determina la reducción de las ganancias solares y las pérdidas de energía. Se comparan el rendimiento del acristalamiento, obtenido experimentalmente, con el ofrecido por paneles solares fototérmicos disponibles en el mercado. Mediante la traslación de los resultados experimentales a casos de células de tamaño habitable, se cuantifica la afección del acristalamiento sobre el consumo en refrigeración y calefacción. Diferenciando cada caso por su composición constructiva y orientación, se extraen conclusiones sobre la reducción del gasto en climatización, en condiciones de bienestar. Posteriormente, se evalúa el ahorro de su incorporación en un recinto existente, de construcción ligera, localizado en la Escuela de Arquitectura de la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM). Mediante el planteamiento de escenarios de rehabilitación energética, se estima su compatibilidad con un sistema de climatización mediante bomba de calor y extracción geotérmica. Se describe el funcionamiento del sistema, desde la perspectiva de la operación conjunta de los acristalamientos activos e intercambio geotérmico, en nuestro clima. Mediante la parametrización de sus funciones, se estima el beneficio adicional de su integración, a partir de la mejora del rendimiento de la bomba de calor COP (Coefficient of Performance) en calefacción, y de la eficiencia EER (Energy Efficiency Ratio) en refrigeración. En el recinto de la ETSAM, se ha analizado la contribución de la fachada activa en su calificación como Edificio de Energía Casi Nula, y estudiado la rentabilidad económica del sistema. En el sexto capítulo se exponen las conclusiones de la investigación. A la fecha, el sistema supone alta inversión inicial, no obstante, genera elevada eficiencia con bajo impacto arquitectónico, reduciéndose los costes operativos, y el dimensionado de los sistemas de producción, de mayor afección sobre el edificio. Mediante la envolvente activa con suministro geotérmico no se condena la superficie de cubierta, no se ocupa volumen útil por la presencia de equipos emisores, y no se reduce la superficie o altura útil a base de reforzar los aislamientos. Tras su discusión, se considera una alternativa de valor en procesos de diseño y construcción de Edificios de Energía Casi Nulo. Se proponen líneas de futuras investigación cuyo propósito sea el conocimiento de la tecnología de los acristalamientos activos. En el último capítulo se presentan las actividades de difusión de la investigación. Adicionalmente se ha proporcionado una mejora tecnológica a las fachadas activas existentes, que ha derivado en la solicitud de una patente, actualmente en tramitación. ABSTRACT This Thesis evaluates the contribution of an active water flow glazing façade on the energy performance of buildings. Special emphasis is made on the low visual impact on its image, and the active glazing implementation has to encourage the qualification of the building with the future standard of Nearly Zero Energy Building (nZEB). The purpose is to quantify the façade system contribution to limit air conditioning demand, resulting in a transparent façade solution according to the 2020 energy legislation. An initial approach to the problem is presented in first chapter. The second chapter develops the hypothesis and the main objective of the research. To achieve this purpose, the third chapter reviews the state of the art of the technology and scientific research, through the analysis of reference literature. Patents, prototypes, assimilable commercial systems, ongoing research in other universities, and finally research and development projects incorporating active fluid flow glazing are compared. The experimental method, presented in fourth chapter, undertakes the design, manufacture and monitoring of a water flow glazing prototype exposed during test cycles to weather conditions in Madrid. This phase allowed the acquisition of accurate information on the performance of water flow glazing on each orientation of solar incidence, during different seasons. In parallel, the development of theoretical models is addressed which, through the assimilation to multilayer solutions characterized in the simulation tools EnergyPlus and IDA-Indoor Climate and Energy, reproduce the experimental effect. Fifth chapter discusses experimental and theoretical results focused to the analysis of the active glazing behavior, associated with a specific volume and water flow temperature. The efficiency on harvesting incident solar radiation is calculated, and, by comparison with a conventional glazing, the reduction of solar gains and energy losses are determined. The experimental performance of fluid flow glazing against the one offered by photothermal solar panels available on the market are compared. By translating the experimental and theoretical results to cases of full-size cells, the reduction in cooling and heating consumption achieved by active fluid glazing is quantified. The reduction of energy costs to achieve comfort conditions is calculated, differentiating each case by its whole construction composition and orientation. Subsequently, the saving of the implementation of the system on an existing lightweight construction enclosure, located in the School of Architecture at the Polytechnic University of Madrid (UPM), is then calculated. The compatibility between the active fluid flow glazing and a heat pump with geothermal heat supply system is estimated through the approach of different energy renovation scenarios. The overall system operation is described, from the perspective of active glazing and geothermal heat exchange combined operation, in our climate. By parameterization of its functions, the added benefit of its integration it is discussed, particularly from the improvement of the heat pump performance COP (Coefficient of Performance) in heating and efficiency EER (Energy Efficiency Ratio) in cooling. In the case study of the enclosure in the School of Architecture, the contribution of the active glazing façade in qualifying the enclosure as nearly Zero Energy Building has been analyzed, and the feasibility and profitability of the system are studied. The sixth chapter sets the conclusions of the investigation. To date, the system may require high initial investment; however, high efficiency with low architectural impact is generated. Operational costs are highly reduced as well as the size and complexity of the energy production systems, which normally have huge visual impact on buildings. By the active façade with geothermal supply, the deck area it is not condemned. Useful volume is not consumed by the presence of air-conditioning equipment. Useful surface and room height are not reduced by insulation reinforcement. After discussion, water flow glazing is considered a potential value alternative in nZEB design and construction processes. Finally, this chapter proposes future research lines aiming to increase the knowledge of active water flow glazing technology. The last chapter presents research dissemination activities. Additionally, a technological improvement to existing active facades has been developed, which has resulted in a patent application, currently in handling process.

Construcción modular ligera energéticamente eficiente

Esta tesis trata sobre la construcción modular ligera, dentro del contexto de la eficiencia energética y de cara a los conceptos de nZEB (near Zero Energy Building) y NZEB (Net Zero Energy Building) que se manejan en el ámbito europeo y específicamente dentro del marco regulador de la Directiva 2010/31 UE. En el contexto de la Unión Europea, el sector de la edificación representa el 40% del total del consumo energético del continente. Asumiendo la necesidad de reducir este consumo se han planteado, desde los organismos de dirección europeos, unos objetivos (objetivos 20-20-20) para hacer más eficiente el parque edificatorio. Estos objetivos, que son vinculantes en términos de legislación, comprometen a todos los estados miembros a conseguir la meta de reducción de consumo y emisiones de GEI (Gases de Efecto Invernadero) antes del año 2020. Estos conceptos de construcción modular ligera (CML) y eficiencia energética no suelen estar asociados por el hecho de que este tipo de construcción no suele estar destinada a un uso intensivo y no cuenta con unos cerramientos con niveles de aislamiento de acuerdo a las normativas locales o códigos de edificación de cada país. El objetivo de nZEB o NZEB, e incluso Energy Plus, según sea el caso, necesariamente (y así queda establecido en las normativas), dependerá no sólo de la mejora de los niveles de aislamiento de los edificios, sino también de la implementación de sistemas de generación renovables, independientemente del tipo de sistema constructivo con el que se trabaje e incluso de la tipología edificatoria. Si bien es cierto que los niveles de industrialización de la sociedad tecnológica actual han alcanzado varias de las fases del proceso constructivo - sobre todo en cuanto a elementos compositivos de los edificios- también lo es el hecho de que las cotas de desarrollo conseguidas en el ámbito de la construcción no llegan al nivel de evolución que se puede apreciar en otros campos de las ingenierías como la aeronáutica o la industria del automóvil. Aunque desde finales del siglo pasado existen modelos y proyectos testimoniales de construcción industrializada ligera (CIL) e incluso ya a principios del siglo XX, ejemplos de construcción modular ligera (CML), como la Casa Voisin, la industrialización de la construcción de edificios no ha sido una constante progresiva con un nivel de comercialización equiparable al de la construcción masiva y pesada. Los términos construcción industrializada, construcción prefabricada, construcción modular y construcción ligera, no siempre hacen referencia a lo mismo y no siempre son sinónimos entre sí. Un edificio puede ser prefabricado y no ser modular ni ligero y tal es el caso, por poner un ejemplo, de la construcción con paneles de hormigón prefabricado. Lo que sí es una constante es que en el caso de la construcción modular ligera, la prefabricación y la industrialización, casi siempre vienen implícitas en muchos ejemplos históricos y actuales. Con relación al concepto de eficiencia energética (nZEB o incluso NZEB), el mismo no suele estar ligado a la construcción modular ligera y/o ligera industrializada; más bien se le ve unido a la idea de cerramientos masivos con gran inercia térmica propios de estándares de diseño como el Passivhaus; y aunque comúnmente a la construcción ligera se le asocian otros conceptos que le restan valor (corta vida útil; función y formas limitadas, fuera de todo orden estético; limitación en los niveles de confort, etc.), los avances que se van alcanzando en materia de tecnologías para el aprovechamiento de la energía y sistemas de generación renovables, pueden conseguir revertir estas ideas y unificar el criterio de eficiencia + construcción modular ligera. Prototipos y proyectos académicos– como el concurso Solar Decathlon que se celebra desde el año 2002 promovido por el DOE (Departamento de Energía de los Estados Unidos), y que cuenta con ediciones europeas como las de los años 2010 y 2012, replantean la idea de la construcción industrializada, modular y ligera dentro del contexto de la eficiencia energética, con prototipos de viviendas de ± 60m2, propuestos por las universidades concursantes, y cuyo objetivo es alcanzar y/o desarrollar el concepto de NZEB (Net Zero Energy Building) o edificio de energía cero. Esta opción constructiva no sólo representa durabilidad, seguridad y estética, sino también, rapidez en la fabricación y montaje, además de altas prestaciones energéticas como se ha podido demostrar en las sucesivas ediciones del Solar Decathlon. Este tipo de iniciativas de desarrollo de tecnologías constructivas, no sólo apuntan a la eficiencia energética sino al concepto global de energía neta, Energía plus o cero emisiones de CO2. El nivel de emisiones por la fabricación y puesta en obra de los materiales de construcción depende, en muchos casos, no solo de la propia naturaleza del material, sino también de la cantidad de recursos utilizados para producir una unidad de medida determinada (kg, m3, m2, ml, etc). En este sentido podría utilizarse, en muchos casos, el argumento válido de que a menos peso, y a menos tamaño, menos emisiones globales de gases de efecto invernadero y menos contaminación. Para el trabajo de investigación de esta tesis se han tomado como referencias válidas para estudio, prototipos tanto de CML (Modular 3D) como de CIL (panelizado y elementos 2D), dado que para los fines de análisis de las prestaciones energéticas de los materiales de cerramiento, ambos sistemas son equiparables. Para poder llegar a la conclusión fundamental de este trabajo de tesis doctoral - que consiste en demostrar la viabilidad tecnológica/ industrial que supone la combinación de la eficiencia energética y la construcción modular ligera - se parte del estudio del estado de la técnica ( desde la selección de los materiales y los posibles procesos de industrialización en fábrica, hasta su puesta en obra, funcionamiento y uso, bajo los conceptos de consumo cero, cero emisiones de carbono y plus energético). Además -y con un estado de la técnica que identifica la situación actual- se llevan a cabo pruebas y ensayos con un prototipo a escala natural y células de ensayo, para comprobar el comportamiento de los elementos compositivos de los mismos, frente a unas condicionantes climáticas determinadas. Este tipo de resultados se contrastan con los obtenidos mediante simulaciones informáticas basadas en los mismos parámetros y realizadas en su mayoría mediante métodos simplificados de cálculos, validados por los organismos competentes en materia de eficiencia energética en la edificación en España y de acuerdo a la normativa vigente. ABSTRACT This thesis discusses lightweight modular construction within the context of energy efficiency in nZEB (near Zero Energy Building) and NZEB (Net Zero Energy Building) both used in Europe and, specifically, within the limits of the regulatory framework of the EU Directive 2010/31. In the European Union the building sector represents 40% of the total energy consumption of the continent. Due to the need to reduce this consumption, European decision-making institutions have proposed aims (20-20-20 aims) to render building equipment more efficient. These aims are bound by law and oblige all member States to endeavour to reduce consumption and GEI emissions before the year 2020. Lightweight modular construction concepts and energy efficiency are not generally associated because this type of building is not normally meant for intensive use and does not have closures with insulation levels which fit the local regulations or building codes of each country. The objective of nZEB or NZEB and even Energy Plus, depending on each case, will necessarily be associated (as established in the guidelines) not only with the improvement of insulation levels in buildings, but also with the implementation of renewable systems of generation, independent of the type of building system used and of the building typology. Although it is true that the levels of industrialisation in the technological society today have reached several of the building process phases - particularly in the composite elements of buildings - it is also true that the quotas of development achieved in the area of construction have not reached the evolutionary levelfound in other fields of engineering, such as aeronautics or the automobile industry. Although there have been models and testimonial projects of lightweight industrialised building since the end of last century, even going back as far as the beginning of the XX century with examples of lightweight modular construction such as the Voisin House, industrialisation in the building industry has not been constant nor is its comercialisation comparable to massive and heavy construction. The terms industrialised building, prefabricated building, modular building and lightweight building, do not always refer to the same thing and they are not always synonymous. A building can be prefabricated yet not be modular or lightweight. To give an example, this is the case of building with prefabricated concrete panels. What is constant is that, in the case of lightweight modular construction, prefabrication and industrialisation are almost always implicit in many historical and contemporary examples. Energy efficiency (nZEB or even NZEB) is not normally linked to lightweight modular construction and/or industrialised lightweight; rather, it is united to the idea of massive closureswith high thermal inertia typical of design standards such as the Passive House; and although other concepts that subtract value from it are generally associated with lightweight building (short useful life, limited forms and function, inappropriate toany aesthetic pattern; limitation in comfort levels, etc.), the advances being achieved in technology for benefitting from energy and renewable systems of generation may well reverse these ideas and unify the criteria of efficiency + lightweight modular construction. Academic prototypes and projects - such as the Solar Decathlon competition organised by the US Department of Energy and celebrated since 2002, with its corresponding European events such as those held in 2010 and 2012, place a different slant on the idea of industrialised, modular and lightweight building within the context of energy efficiency, with prototypes of homes measuring approximately 60m2, proposed by university competitors, whose aim is to reach and/or develop the NZEB concept, or the zero energy building. This building option does not only signify durability, security and aesthetics, but also fast manufacture and assembly. It also has high energy benefits, as has been demonstrated in successive events of the Solar Decathlon. This type of initiative for the development of building technologies, does not only aim at energy efficiency, but also at the global concept of net energy, Energy Plus and zero CO2 emissions. The level of emissions in the manufacture and introduction of building materials in many cases depends not only on the inherent nature of the material, but also on the quantity of resources used to produce a specific unit of measurement (kg, m3, m2, ml, etc.). Thus in many cases itcould be validly arguedthat with less weight and smaller size, there will be fewer global emissions of greenhouse effect gases and less contamination. For the research carried out in this thesis prototypes such as the CML (3D Module) and CIL (panelled and elements) have been used as valid study references, becauseboth systems are comparablefor the purpose of analysing the energy benefits of closure materials. So as to reach a basic conclusion in this doctoral thesis - that sets out to demonstrate the technological/industrial viability of the combination of energy efficiency and lightweight modular construction - the departure point is the study of the state of the technique (from the selection of materials and the possible processes of industrialisation in manufacture, to their use on site, functioning and use, respecting the concepts of zero consumption, zero emissions of carbon and Energy Plus). Moreover, with the state of the technique identifying the current situation, tests and practices have been carried out with a natural scale prototype and test cells so as to verify the behaviour of the composite elements of these in certain climatic conditions. These types of result are contrasted with those obtained through computer simulation based on the same parameters and done, principally, using simplified methods of calculation, validated by institutions competent in energy efficiency in Spanish building and in line with the rules in force.

Analysis and improvement of the envelope, heating and ventilation of a low energy building with district heating

In this thesis project, a building in Vegagatan 12, Gävle has been analysed in order to see why it does consume more energy than it was expected. This building is a low energy building certified by Miljöbyggnad and it should use less than 55kWh/m2 year and nowadays it is using 62.23 kWh/m2. To get the needed data, some information about the building has been gathered, some measurements have been done in the building and some calculations have been done with those measurements. Finally, some possible solutions have been offered to reduce the energy use of the building. Insulating the floor, the pipes and the walls, reducing the indoor temperature in winter... All of these changes need the help of environmentally friendly attitudes, which is a very important fact in low energy buildings.

Reabilitação de edifícios com novas tendências NZEB: caso de estudo: edifício de serviços em Setúbal

Trabalho Final de Mestrado para obtenção do grau de Mestre em Engenharia Civil

Integração de modelos BIM com redes de sensores num edifício

Dissertação para obtenção do Grau de Mestre em Engenharia Eletrotécnica e Computadores

Avaluació i implantació d’un sistema de climatització amb energia solar a la Facultat de Ciències de la UdG

Estudi de viabilitat de climatització de la Facultat de Ciències de la UdG per energia solar. Estudi de costos i comparació de l’estalvi respecte al sistema actual

Manifestation of the pairing symmetry in the vortex core structure in iron-based superconductors

The superconducting gap is a basic character of a superconductor. While the cuprates and conventional phonon-mediated superconductors are characterized by distinct d- and s-wave pairing symmetries with nodal and nodeless gap distributions respectively, the superconducting gap distributions in iron-based superconductors are rather diversified. While nodeless gap distributions have been directly observed in Ba1–xKxFe2As2, BaFe2–xCoxAs2, LiFeAs, KxFe2–ySe2, and FeTe1–xSex, the signatures of a nodal superconducting gap have been reported in LaOFeP, LiFeP, FeSe, KFe2As2, BaFe2–xRuxAs2, and BaFe2(As1–xPx)2. Due to the multiplicity of the Fermi surface in these compounds s± and d pairing states can be both nodeless and nodal. A nontrivial orbital structure of the order parameter, in particular the presence of the gap nodes, leads to effects in which the disorder is much richer in dx2–y2-wave superconductors than in conventional materials. In contrast to the s-wave case, the Anderson theorem does not work, and nonmagnetic impurities exhibit a strong pair-breaking influence. In addition, a finite concentration of disorder produces a nonzero density of quasiparticle states at zero energy, which results in a considerable modification of the thermodynamic and transport properties at low temperatures. The influence of order parameter symmetry on the vortex core structure in iron-based pnictide and chalcogenide superconductors has been investigated in the framework of quasiclassical Eilenberger equations. The main results of the thesis are as follows. The vortex core characteristics, such as, cutoff parameter, ξh, and core size, ξ2, determined as the distance at which density of the vortex supercurrent reaches its maximum, are calculated in wide temperature, impurity scattering rate, and magnetic field ranges. The cutoff parameter, ξh(B; T; Г), determines the form factor of the flux-line lattice, which can be obtained in _SR, NMR, and SANS experiments. A comparison among the applied pairing symmetries is done. In contrast to s-wave systems, in dx2–y2-wave superconductors, ξh/ξc2 always increases with the scattering rate Г. Field dependence of the cutoff parameter affects strongly on the second moment of the magnetic field distributions, resulting in a significant difference with nonlocal London theory. It is found that normalized ξ2/ξc2(B/Bc2) dependence is increasing with pair-breaking impurity scattering (interband scattering for s±-wave and intraband impurity scattering for d-wave superconductors). Here, ξc2 is the Ginzburg-Landau coherence length determined from the upper critical field Bc2 = Φ0/2πξ2 c2, where Φ0 is a flux quantum. Two types of ξ2/ξc2 magnetic field dependences are obtained for s± superconductors. It has a minimum at low temperatures and small impurity scattering transforming in monotonously decreasing function at strong scattering and high temperatures. The second kind of this dependence has been also found for d-wave superconductors at intermediate and high temperatures. In contrast, impurity scattering results in decreasing of ξ2/ξc2(B/Bc2) dependence in s++ superconductors. A reasonable agreement between calculated ξh/ξc2 values and those obtained experimentally in nonstoichiometric BaFe2–xCoxAs2 (μSR) and stoichiometric LiFeAs (SANS) was found. The values of ξh/ξc2 are much less than one in case of the first compound and much more than one for the other compound. This is explained by different influence of two factors: the value of impurity scattering rate and pairing symmetry.