Observational constraints on atmospheric and oceanic cross-equatorial heat transports: revisiting the precipitation asymmetry problem in climate models

Satellite based top-of-atmosphere (TOA) and surface radiation budget observations are combined with mass corrected vertically integrated atmospheric energy divergence and tendency from reanalysis to infer the regional distribution of the TOA, atmospheric and surface energy budget terms over the globe. Hemispheric contrasts in the energy budget terms are used to determine the radiative and combined sensible and latent heat contributions to the cross-equatorial heat transports in the atmosphere (AHT_EQ) and ocean (OHT_EQ). The contrast in net atmospheric radiation implies an AHT_EQ from the northern hemisphere (NH) to the southern hemisphere (SH) (0.75 PW), while the hemispheric difference in sensible and latent heat implies an AHT_EQ in the opposite direction (0.51 PW), resulting in a net NH to SH AHT_EQ (0.24 PW). At the surface, the hemispheric contrast in the radiative component (0.95 PW) dominates, implying a 0.44 PW SH to NH OHT_EQ. Coupled model intercomparison project phase 5 (CMIP5) models with excessive net downward surface radiation and surface-to-atmosphere sensible and latent heat transport in the SH relative to the NH exhibit anomalous northward AHT_EQ and overestimate SH tropical precipitation. The hemispheric bias in net surface radiative flux is due to too much longwave surface radiative cooling in the NH tropics in both clear and all-sky conditions and excessive shortwave surface radiation in the SH subtropics and extratropics due to an underestimation in reflection by clouds.

On the parameterization of turbulent surface fluxes over heterogeneous sea ice surfaces

Turbulent surface fluxes of momentum and sensible and latent heat as well as surface temperature, air temperature, air humidity, and wind speed were measured by the German Falcon research aircraft over the marginal ice zone (MIZ) of the northern Baltic Sea and the Fram Strait. Applying the bulk formulas and the stability functions to the measurements, the roughness lengths for momentum z0, sensible heat zT, and latent heat zq were calculated. As mean values over a wide range of sea ice conditions, we obtain z0 = 5 � 10�4 m, zT = 1 � 10�8 m, and zq = 1 � 10�7 m. These correspond to the following mean values (± standard deviations) of neutral transfer coefficients reduced to 10 m height, CDN10 = (1.9 ± 0.8) � 10�3, CHN10 = (0.9 ± 0.3) � 10�3, and CEN10 = (1.0 ± 0.2) � 10�3. An average ratio of z0/zT � 104 was observed over the range of 10�6 m < z0 < 10�2 m and differs from previously published results over compact sea ice (10�1 < z0/zT < 103). Other observational results over heterogeneous sea ice do not exist. However, our z0/zT ratio approximately agrees with observations over heterogeneous land surfaces. Flux parameterizations based on commonly used roughness lengths ratios (z0 = zT = zq) overestimate the surface heat fluxes compared to our measurements by more than 100%.

Modeling study of the aspect ratio influence on urban canopy energy fluxes with a modified wall-canyon energy budget scheme

The influence of the aspect ratio (building height/street canyon width) and the mean building height of cities on local energy fluxes and temperatures is studied by means of an Urban Canopy Model (UCM) coupled with a one-dimensional second-order turbulence closure model. The UCM presented is similar to the Town Energy Balance (TEB) model in most of its features but differs in a few important aspects. In particular, the street canyon walls are treated separately which leads to a different budget of radiation within the street canyon walls. The UCM has been calibrated using observations of incoming global and diffuse solar radiation, incoming long-wave radiation and air temperature at a site in So Paulo, Brazil. Sensitivity studies with various aspect ratios have been performed to assess their impact on urban temperatures and energy fluxes at the top of the canopy layer. In these simulations, it is assumed that the anthropogenic heat flux and latent heat fluxes are negligible. Results show that the simulated net radiation and sensible heat fluxes at the top of the canopy decrease and the stored heat increases as the aspect ratio increases. The simulated air temperature follows the behavior of the sensible heat flux. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The influence of viscous and latent heating on crystal-rich magma flow in a conduit

The flow dynamics of crystal-rich high-viscosity magma is likely to be strongly influenced by viscous and latent heat release. Viscous heating is observed to play an important role in the dynamics of fluids with temperature-dependent viscosities. The growth of microlite crystals and the accompanying release of latent heat should play a similar role in raising fluid temperatures. Earlier models of viscous heating in magmas have shown the potential for unstable (thermal runaway) flow as described by a Gruntfest number, using an Arrhenius temperature dependence for the viscosity, but have not considered crystal growth or latent heating. We present a theoretical model for magma flow in an axisymmetric conduit and consider both heating effects using Finite Element Method techniques. We consider a constant mass flux in a 1-D infinitesimal conduit segment with isothermal and adiabatic boundary conditions and Newtonian and non-Newtonian magma flow properties. We find that the growth of crystals acts to stabilize the flow field and make the magma less likely to experience a thermal runaway. The additional heating influences crystal growth and can counteract supercooling from degassing-induced crystallization and drive the residual melt composition back towards the liquidus temperature. We illustrate the models with results generated using parameters appropriate for the andesite lava dome-forming eruption at Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat. These results emphasize the radial variability of the magma. Both viscous and latent heating effects are shown to be capable of playing a significant role in the eruption dynamics of Soufriere Hills Volcano. Latent heating is a factor in the top two kilometres of the conduit and may be responsible for relatively short-term (days) transients. Viscous heating is less restricted spatially, but because thermal runaway requires periods of hundreds of days to be achieved, the process is likely to be interrupted. Our models show that thermal evolution of the conduit walls could lead to an increase in the effective diameter of flow and an increase in flux at constant magma pressure.

Climate entropy budget of the HadCM3 atmosphere-ocean general circulation model and of FAMOUS, its low resolution version

The entropy budget is calculated of the coupled atmosphere–ocean general circulation model HadCM3. Estimates of the different entropy sources and sinks of the climate system are obtained directly from the diabatic heating terms, and an approximate estimate of the planetary entropy production is also provided. The rate of material entropy production of the climate system is found to be ∼50 mW m−2 K−1, a value intermediate in the range 30–70 mW m−2 K−1 previously reported from different models. The largest part of this is due to sensible and latent heat transport (∼38 mW m−2 K−1). Another 13 mW m−2 K−1 is due to dissipation of kinetic energy in the atmosphere by friction and Reynolds stresses. Numerical entropy production in the atmosphere dynamical core is found to be about 0.7 mW m−2 K−1. The material entropy production within the ocean due to turbulent mixing is ∼1 mW m−2 K−1, a very small contribution to the material entropy production of the climate system. The rate of change of entropy of the model climate system is about 1 mW m−2 K−1 or less, which is comparable with the typical size of the fluctuations of the entropy sources due to interannual variability, and a more accurate closure of the budget than achieved by previous analyses. Results are similar for FAMOUS, which has a lower spatial resolution but similar formulation to HadCM3, while more substantial differences are found with respect to other models, suggesting that the formulation of the model has an important influence on the climate entropy budget. Since this is the first diagnosis of the entropy budget in a climate model of the type and complexity used for projection of twenty-first century climate change, it would be valuable if similar analyses were carried out for other such models.

Respiratory heat loss of Holstein cows in a tropical environment

In order to develop statistical models to predict respiratory heat loss in dairy cattle using simple physiological and environmental measurements, 15 Holstein cows were observed under field conditions in a tropical environment, in which the air temperature reached up to 40 &DEG; C. The measurements of latent and sensible heat loss from the respiratory tract of the animals were made by using a respiratory mask. The results showed that under air temperatures between 10 and 35 &DEG; C sensible heat loss by convection decreased from 8.24 to 1.09 W m(-2), while the latent heat loss by evaporation increased from 1.03 to 56.51 W m(-2). The evaporation increased together with the air temperature in almost a linear fashion until 20 &DEG; C, but it became increasingly high as the air temperature rose above 25 &DEG; C. Convection was a mechanism of minor importance for respiratory heat transfer. In contrast, respiratory evaporation was an effective means of thermoregulation for Holsteins in a hot environment. Mathematical models were developed to predict both the sensible and latent heat loss from the respiratory tract in Holstein cows under field conditions, based on measurements of the ambient temperature, and other models were developed to predict respiration rate, tidal volume, mass flow rate and expired air temperature as functions of the ambient temperature and other variables.

Efeitos de um evento de friagem nas condições meteorológicas na Amazônia: um estudo de caso

A influência do fenômeno da friagem nas variáveis meteorológicas e nos fluxos de energia e CO2 , foi realizada numa área de floresta próxima à região de Ji-Paraná, Rondônia, durante o mês de junho de 2001. A friagem ocasionou uma diminuição de 35% no valor da temperatura do ar. Notou-se uma redução de 75 W.m-2, na radiação solar incidente, associada à nebulosidade presente em decorrência da penetração da massa de ar fria. Conseqüentemente, tanto o fluxo de calor sensível (H) quanto o de calor latente (LE), apresentaram uma diminuição no seu valor médio diário, apresentando uma diferença em relação aos dias normais de 8 e 34%, respectivamente. A concentração de CO2 permaneceu constante, sem apresentar o aumento comum durante a noite, devido à condição de vento forte típica da friagem. Em situação normal o fluxo médio durante o dia de CO2 (-2,44 mmol m-2 s-1) foi menor que durante os dias de friagem (-5,78 mmol m-2 s-1); enquanto que os fluxos médios noturnos foram +1,77mmol m-2 s-1 e +2,83mmol m-2 s-1 durante situações de dias normais e de friagem, respectivamente.

Fluxos de calor no dossel vegetativo e infiltração de água no solo, em floresta tropical

Este estudo analisou as variações sazonais e anuais dos fluxos de calor sensível e latente, armazenados pelo dossel vegetativo de floresta tropical úmida, bem como a taxa de infiltração de água no solo em duas parcelas experimentais, uma com exclusáo de chuva e outra submetida às condições reais de precipitação pluvial. Os dados aqui usados foram obtidos do projeto ''Estudo da Seca da Floresta (ESECAFLOR), subprojeto do Experimento de Grande Escala da Biosfera-Atmosfera na Amazônia (LBA), conduzido na reserva florestal de terra firme em Caxiuaná, PA. Os dados de temperatura e umidade relativa do ar foram coletados no perfil da floresta amazônica, em intervalos de 8 m, deSde a superfície até 32 m, durante o ano de 2008, em intervalos horários, para se determinar os fluxos de calor sensível e latente armazenados nos período chuvoso (fevereiro, março e abril) e menos chuvoso (setembro, outubro e novembro). Os resultados indicaram que o fluxo de calor sensível armazenado no dossel da floresta no ano de 2008, foi 167,93 W m-2 e o fluxo de calor latente armazenado foi de 5184,38 W m-2. A taxa de infiltração de água do solo na floresta foi reduzida drasticamente nos primeiros minutos do início do experimento, independentemente das condições de umidade do solo e, em seguida, ela apresentou comportamento quase constante ao longo do tempo.

Long-term eddy-covariance measurements from FINO2 platform above the Baltic Sea

The estimation of the carbon dioxide (CO2) fluxes above the open ocean plays an important role for the determination of the global carbon cycle. A frequently used method therefore is the eddy-covariance technique, which is based on the theory of the Prandl-layer with height-constant fluxes in the atmospheric boundary layer. To test the assumption of the constant flux layer, in 2008 measurements of turbulent heat and CO2 fluxes were started within the project Surface Ocean Processes in the Anthropocene (SOPRAN) at the research platform FINO2. The FINO2 platform is situated in the South-west of the Baltic Sea, in the tri-border region between Germany, Denmark, and Sweden. In the frame of the Research project SOPRAN, the platform was equipped with additional sensors in June 2008. A combination of 3-component sonic anemometers (USA-1) and open-path infrared gas analyzers for absolute humidity (H2O) and CO2 (LICOR 7500) were installed at a 9m long boom directed southward of the platform in two heights, at 6.8 and 13.8m above sea surface. Additionally slow temperature and humidity sensors were installed at each height. The gas analyzer systems were calibrated before the installation and worked permanently without any calibration during the first measurement period of one and a half years. The comparison with the measurements of the slow sensors showed for both instruments no significant long-term drift in H2O and CO2. Drifts on smaller time scales (in the order of days) due to the contamination with sea salt, were cleaned naturally by rain. The drift of both quantities had no influence on the fluctuation, which, in contrast to the mean values, are important for the flux estimation. All data were filtered due to spikes, rain, and the influence of the mast. The data set includes the measurements of all sensors as average over 30 minutes each for one and a half years, June 2008 to December 2009, and 10 month from November 2011 to August 2012. Additionally derived quantities for 30 minutes intervals each, like the variances for the fast-sensor variables, as well as the momentum, sensible and latent heat, and CO2 flux are presented.

Thickening of phase change materials (PCM) to avoid segregation

Estudi elaborat a partir d’una estada a Çukurova University, Turquia, al juliol del 2006. L’emmagatzematge d’energia tèrmica ha atret interès en aplicacions tèrmiques com l’aigua calenta, la calefacció i l’aire condicionat. Aquests sistemes són útils per corregir la no coincidència entre la oferta i la demanda d’energia. Principalment hi ha dos tipus de sistemes d’emmagatzematge d’energia tèrmica, emmagatzematge amb calor sensible i amb calor latent. L’emmagatzematge amb calor latent és particularment atractiu degut a la seva habilitat de donar una densitat d’emmagatzematge d’energia més alt i la seva característica d’emmagatzemar calor a una temperatura constant corresponent a la temperatura de transició de fase de la substància emmagatzemadora de calor. Les salts hidratades orgàniques tenen certes avantatges com a materials d’emmagatzematge de calor latent sobre els materials orgànics. En canvi, quan les salts hidratades s’utilitzen com a materials de canvi de fase (PCM) apareixen alguns problemes en les aplicacions d’emmagatzematge de calor latent. Aquests són el subrefredament de les salts hidratades quan es congelen degut a les seves dèbils propietats de nucleació, i la separació de fase que hi apareix degut a una fusió incongruent. En aquest estudi, s’estabilitza sal de Glauber (Na2SO4.10H2O) amb diferents concentracions de poliacrilamida i gelatina per prevenir la fusió incongruent. Per prevenir el subrefredament s’utilitza un agent nucleant amb una estructura cristal•lina semblant a la de la sal de Glauber. La capacitat d’emmagatzematge de calor de les mostres de PCM estabilitzades amb diferents concentracions de gels polimèrics es determinen amb DCS i amb el mètode T-history.

Transient climate change simulations with a coupled atmosphere–ocean GCM including the tropospheric sulfur cycle

The time-dependent climate response to changing concentrations of greenhouse gases and sulfate aerosols is studied using a coupled general circulation model of the atmosphere and the ocean (ECHAM4/OPYC3). The concentrations of the well-mixed greenhouse gases like CO2, CH4, N2O, and CFCs are prescribed for the past (1860–1990) and projected into the future according to International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) scenario IS92a. In addition, the space–time distribution of tropospheric ozone is prescribed, and the tropospheric sulfur cycle is calculated within the coupled model using sulfur emissions of the past and projected into the future (IS92a). The radiative impact of the aerosols is considered via both the direct and the indirect (i.e., through cloud albedo) effect. It is shown that the simulated trend in sulfate deposition since the end of the last century is broadly consistent with ice core measurements, and the calculated radiative forcings from preindustrial to present time are within the uncertainty range estimated by IPCC. Three climate perturbation experiments are performed, applying different forcing mechanisms, and the results are compared with those obtained from a 300-yr unforced control experiment. As in previous experiments, the climate response is similar, but weaker, if aerosol effects are included in addition to greenhouse gases. One notable difference to previous experiments is that the strength of the Indian summer monsoon is not fundamentally affected by the inclusion of aerosol effects. Although the monsoon is damped compared to a greenhouse gas only experiment, it is still more vigorous than in the control experiment. This different behavior, compared to previous studies, is the result of the different land–sea distribution of aerosol forcing. Somewhat unexpected, the intensity of the global hydrological cycle becomes weaker in a warmer climate if both direct and indirect aerosol effects are included in addition to the greenhouse gases. This can be related to anomalous net radiative cooling of the earth’s surface through aerosols, which is balanced by reduced turbulent transfer of both sensible and latent heat from the surface to the atmosphere.

Características do pelame de vacas Holandesas em ambiente tropical: um estudo genético e adaptativo

As características do pelame (espessura da capa, comprimento médio dos pêlos, número de pêlos por unidade de área, densidade de massa dos pêlos, ângulo de inclinação dos pêlos com respeito a superfície da epiderme e diâmetro médio do pêlos) foram avaliadas em 973 vacas da raça Holandesa, entre novembro de 2000 e abril de 2001, numa área localizada 20cm abaixo da coluna vertebral, no centro do tronco, tanto nas malhas brancas como nas negras. As amostras de pêlos foram obtidas com um alicate comum adaptado. O método da Máxima Verossimilhança Restrita (REML) foi usado para estimar os componentes de variância e covariância sob modelo animal, sendo empregado o sistema MTDFREML. Os resultados mostraram que as características do pelame preto são diferentes das do branco, quando os animais são criados em ambiente tropical. O pelame preto apresentou-se menos denso, com pêlos mais curtos e grossos devido à maior necessidade de perder calor, enquanto que, o pelame branco é mais denso e com pêlos mais compridos, oferecendo uma melhor proteção contra à radiação solar direta. A seleção de vacas predominantemente negras pode ser uma boa escolha para aumentar a resistência do gado Holandês às condições do ambiente tropical, principalmente à radiação solar, quando esses animais são criados a campo, devido a que a epiderme sob esse tipo de malhas é altamente pigmentada. Tal seleção pode ser facilmente realizada, considerando a alta herdabilidade (h²=0,75) para a proporção de malhas negras. Esta seleção deve ser realizada no sentido de um pelame menos denso, com pêlos curtos e grossos favorecendo as perdas de calor sensível e calor latente.

Air-sea interaction studies at the station occupied by R/V Sirius

The transfer formulas are used to compute hourly values of sensible and latent heat exchanges for the period July 29 to July 31, 1974. Also, values of eddy shearing stress at the sea surface, Bowen's ratio and dissipation of kinetic energy are computed. The data used cover part of the GATE period for station 20 occupied by the Brazilian Naval Ship R/V Sirius in the Equatorial Atlantic (0730 N 4000 W). The variations in the computed values are studied in relation to rainfall and the synoptic situation. © 1980 D. Reidel Publishing Co.

Análise e estimativa dos componentes do balanço de energia em ecossistema de manguezal amazônico

As medições e estimativas dos componentes do balanço de energia foram feitos acima da copa das árvores no ecossistema de manguezal natural, localizada a 30 km da cidade de Bragança-PA, entre novembro de 2002 e agosto de 2003. Os dados foram utilizados para a análise das variações sazonais e horárias do fluxo de calor sensível e calor latente, bem como a avaliação da partição de energia. Os dados meteorológicos foram coletados pela estação meteorológica automática (EMA) e os fluxos foram calculados utilizando-se a técnica de covariância de vórtices turbulentos. Os modelos de Penman-Monteith e Shuttleworth foram usados para estimar o fluxo de calor sensível e calor latente. O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar o equilíbrio e a partição de energia no manguezal, assim como fazer uma avaliação do comportamento de modelos empíricos para estimar os fluxos de energia. O saldo de radiação apresentou valores mais elevados no período menos chuvoso. A razão de Bowen mostrou valor geralmente baixo, o que indica que uma proporção maior de energia foi utilizada sob a forma de calor latente. O modelo Shuttleworth é mais eficiente na estimativa de fluxos de calor sensível. Para estimar o fluxo de calor latente do modelo de Penman-Monteith foi mais eficiente durante a estação seca e o modelo Shuttleworth durante a estação chuvosa.

Análise dos impactos das diferentes formas de ocupação da superfície sobre as condições meteorológicas na região de Santarém, Pará

O objetivo desta dissertação foi obter informações referentes ao uso e ocupação do solo na região de Santarém, em diferentes anos das últimas décadas, para melhor representar os efeitos causados pelas modificações das propriedades da superfície sobre as condições atmosféricas simuladas por modelos numéricos de tempo e clima. As superfícies continentais caracterizam-se por causar efeitos substanciais sobre a atmosfera e, consequentemente, influir na qualidade das previsões de tempo e de clima. Por outro lado, o desmatamento contribui com as mudanças climáticas, por eliminar grandes quantidades de gases de efeito estufa para a atmosfera. Estas atividades também causam efeitos na saúde publica, na agricultura, nos recursos florestais, nos recursos faunísticos e nos recursos hídricos. Além disso, a substituição da superfície natural por pastagem ou agricultura altera as propriedades térmicas e radiativas da superfície, gerando modificações nas condições atmosféricas locais, regionais e globais. Neste trabalho foram analisados períodos representativos de possíveis mudanças climáticas na região, identificados a partir do tratamento e analise estatística de dados climatológicos de estações meteorológicas de superfície, bem como a evolução temporal e quantitativa do desmatamento na região de estudo com os dados do Projeto PRODES Monitoramento da Floresta Amazônica Brasileira por Satélite). Para avaliar os efeitos atmosféricos das mudanças no uso e ocupação do solo utilizou-se como base o mapa de vegetação do IBGE, e a inclusão da classe “desmatamento” ao mesmo em diferentes períodos analisados (anos de 1997e 2009) trabalhadas no software Arc. Gis. 9.2. Foram criados arquivos de dados de tipos de superfície compatíveis com a leitura do modelo BRAMS, que foi então utilizado para simular os diferentes efeitos desses mapas temáticos de uso e ocupação do solo na atmosfera local. Os resultados indicam uma tendência de aumento da precipitação média anual e da frequência média de dias com precipitação, diminuição da temperatura média das máximas e aumento da temperatura média das mínimas ao longo dos anos na região de Santarém. A área de estudo, até o ano de 1997, registrou um desmatamento de 19,44% e até o ano de 2009 passou para 25,54%. As simulações com os arquivos gerados de uso e ocupação do solo para 1997 e 2009 apresentaram poucas variações para os diferentes mapas temáticos em suas variáveis (temperatura, umidade e fluxos de calor sensível e latente), quando considerado os valores médios da área total simulada. Porém, quando se considera pequenas áreas localizadas somente sobre as regiões que sofreram maiores modificações, observam-se maiores influências com o aumento do desmatamento.