Habituation and consolidation of prospective memory over a week: An ERP study

Prospective memory (ProM) is the ability to remember and perform an intention in the future. If a prospective memory task is to be performed only once, it is episodic. If it is repeated, then it becomes habitual. Thus, with repetition, a task changes from episodic to habitual. The goal of this study was to investigate the transition from episodic to habitual prospective memory with event-related potentials (ERP). The ProM task was to respond to a target word which was embedded in an ongoing lexical decision task. 40 ProM trials were administered in each of two sessions that were separated by a week. The results revealed a behavioural consolidation effect with increased ProM performance after one week. The ERP-analyses showed that when the task became more habitual a difference occurred in a time-window between 450-650 ms post-stimulus in an ERP-component. In addition, a covariance analysis revealed that this transition is continued in the second session. These results demonstrate that the transition from episodic to habitual prospective memory is long-lasting and continuous.

Prospective memory, executive functions, and metacognition are already differentiated in young elementary school children: Evidence from latent factor modelling

This study investigated the empirical differentiation of prospective memory, executive functions, and metacognition and their structural relationships in 119 elementary school children (M = 95 months, SD = 4.8 months). These cognitive abilities share many characteristics on the theoretical level and are all highly relevant in many everyday contexts when intentions must be executed. Nevertheless, their empirical relationships have not been examined on the latent level, although an empirical approach would contribute to our knowledge concerning the differentiation of cognitive abilities during childhood. We administered a computerized event-based prospective memory task, three executive function tasks (updating, inhibition, shifting), and a metacognitive control task in the context of spelling. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that the three cognitive abilities are already empirically differentiable in young elementary school children. At the same time, prospective memory and executive functions were found to be strongly related, and there was also a close link between prospective memory and metacognitive control. Furthermore, executive functions and metacognitive control were marginally significantly related. The findings are discussed within a framework of developmental differentiation and conceptual similarities and differences.

Attention affects prospective memory performance in dichotic listening paradigm

The current study was designed to test for the effect of lateralized attention on prospective memory performance in a dichotic listening task. The practice phase of the experiment consisted of a semantic decision task during which the participants were presented with different words on either side via headphones. Depending on the experimental condition the participants were required to focus on the words presented on the left or right side and to decide if these words were abstract or concrete. Thereafter, the participants were informed about the prospective memory task. They were instructed to press a distinct key whenever they hear a word which denotes an animal in the same task later during the experiment. The participants were explicitly informed that the prospective memory cues could appear on either side of the headphones. This was followed by a retention interval which was filled with unrelated tasks. Next, the participants performed the prospective memory task. The results revealed more prospective hits for the attended side. The finding suggests that noticing a prospective memory cue is not an automatic process but requires attention.

Prospective Memory, Retrospective Memory, Executive Functions, and Metacognition: How they are linked longitudinally in young elementary school children

Succeeding in everyday activities often requires executive functioning (EF), metacognitive abilities (MC) and memory skills such as prospective memory (PM) and retrospective memory (RM). These cognitive abilities seem to gradually develop in childhood, possibly influencing each other during development. From a theoretical point of view, it is likely that they are closely interrelated, especially in children. Their empirical relation, however, is less clear. A model that links these cognitive abilities can help to better understand the relation between PM and RM and other cognitive processes. In this project we studied the longitudinal development of PM, RM, EF, and MC in 7-8 year old elementary school children across half a year. 119 second graders (MT1 = 95 months, SDT1, = 4.8 months) completed the same PM, RM, EF and MC tasks twice with a time-lag of 7 months. The developmental progression was analysed using paired t-tests, the longitudinal relationships were analysed using confirmatory factor analysis and all fit indices are in accordance with Hu and Bentler (1998). In general, performance improved significantly (ps < .001) and effect sizes ranged from .45 to .62 (Cohen’s d). CFA revealed a good model fit, c2(227, 119) = 242.56, p = .23, TLI = .973, CFI = .979, RMSEA = .024. At T1, significant cross-sectional links were found between PM T1 and RM T1, between PM T1 and EF T1, and between EF T1 and MC T1. Moreover, significant longitudinal links were found between EFT1 and PMT2 and between EFT1 and MCT2; EF T1 and RM T2 were marginally linked. Results underline previous findings showing that PM, RM, EF, and MC develop significantly during childhood, even within this short time period. Results also indicate that these cognitive abilities are linked not only cross-sectionally, but longitudinally. Most relevant, however, is the predictive role of EF for both metacognition and memory.

Longitudinal relationships between prospective memory, executive functions, and metacognition in young elementary school children

Prospective Memory (PM), executive functions (EF) and metacognition (MC) are relevant cognitive abilities for everyday functioning. They all seem to develop gradually in childhood and appear to be theoretically closely related; however, their empirical links remain unclear, especially in children. As a recent study revealed significant cross-sectional links between PM and EF, and a weaker but close link between PM and MC in 2nd graders (Spiess, Meier, & Roebers, submitted), this study focused on their short-term relationships and on their development. 119 children (MT1 =95 months, SDT1, = 4.8 months) completed the same tasks (one PM, three EF, one MC task) twice with a time-lag of 7 months. T-tests showed significant improvements in all tasks, except in the updating task. Different structural equation models were contrasted (AMOS); the best fitting model revealed that PMT2 was similarly predicted by PMT1 (r = .33) and EFT1 (r = .34). Additionally, EFT1 predicted MCT2 (r = .44), chi2(118, 119) = 128.91, p = .23, TLI = .968, CFI = .978, RMSEA = .028. Results show that PM, EF, and MC develop during childhood and also demonstrate that they are linked not only cross-sectionally, but longitudinally. Findings are discussed in a broader developmental framework.

Loads and loads and loads: the influence of prospective load, retrospective load, and ongoing task load in prospective memory

In prospective memory tasks different kinds of load can occur. Adding a prospective memory task can impose a load on ongoing task performance. Adding ongoing task load (OTL) can affect prospective memory performance. The existence of multiple target events increases prospective load (PL) and adding complexity to the to-be-remembered action increases retrospective load (RL). In two experiments, we systematically examined the effects of these different types of load on prospective memory performance. Results showed an effect of PL on costs in the ongoing task for categorical targets (Experiment 2), but not for specific targets (Experiment 1). RL and OTL both affected remembering the retrospective component of the prospective memory task. We suggest that PL can enhance costs in the ongoing task due to additional monitoring requirements. RL and OTL seem to impact the division of resources between the ongoing task and retrieval of the retrospective component, which may affect disengagement from the ongoing task. In general, the results demonstrate that the different types of load affect prospective memory differentially.

After-effects and after-effects and after-effects of after-effects: The multiple side effects of prospective memory

In a prospective memory task responding to a prospective memory target involves switching between ongoing and prospective memory task which can result in a slowing of subsequent ongoing task performance (i.e., an after-effect). Moreover, a slowing can also occur when prospective memory targets occur after the prospective memory task is deactivated (i.e., another after-effect). In this study, we investigated both after-effects within the same study. Moreover, we also tested whether the latter after-effects even occur on subsequent ongoing task trials. The results show, in fact, after-effects of all kinds. Thus, (1) correctly responding to prospective memory targets results in after-effects, a so far neglected cost on ongoing task performance, (2) responding to deactivated prospective memory targets also slows down performance, probably due to the involuntary retrieval of the intention, and (3) this slowing is present even on subsequent ongoing task trials, suggesting that even deactivated intentions are sufficient to induce a conflict that requires subsequent adaptation. Overall, these results indicate that performance slowing in a prospective memory experiment includes various kinds of sources, not only monitoring cost, and these sources may be understood best in terms of conflict adaptation.