"Games are fun and aren't just for boys": an assessment of female game players use and playing habits of video games

Video games have asserted themselves as a prevalent part of society; however video games are still often seen as 'boys toys'. However, popular culture is becoming accepting that video games are played by females, with 'all female' video games teams such as the 'Frag Dolls' winning many international competitions [4]. The gender issue in video games is not a new topic, with texts such as 'From Barbie to Mortal Combat' edited by Cassell and Jenkins being publishing in 1998. However, the question of 'do females actually play video games' is still apparent, and with the rapid changes in technological development in gaming (with the introduction of consoles such as the Nintendo Wii) the subject of females game playing habits is in need of constant dialogue. This paper explores the results from a survey of 33 Australian females who play video games and looks at the game playing habits and choices made when they play video games. In addition, this study will attempt to address what components of video games make females want to play. It is hoped that the results can enlighten our knowledge of why females play video games, and hopefully assert the need for video games as an important pastime for females and not just 'for the boys'.

Vertical jumping tests versus wingate anaerobic test in female volleyball players: The role of age

Single and continuous vertical jumping tests, as well as the Wingate anaerobic test (WAnT), are commonly used to assess the short-term muscle power of female volleyball players; however, the relationship among these tests has not been studied adequately. Thus, the aim of the present study was to examine the relationship of single and continuous vertical jumps with the WAnT in female volleyball players. Seventy adolescent (age 16.0 ˘ 1.0 years, body mass 62.5 ˘ 7.1 kg, height 170.4 ˘ 6.1 cm, body fat 24.2% ˘ 4.3%) and 108 adult female volleyball players (age 24.8 ˘ 5.2 years, body mass 66.5 ˘ 8.7 kg, height 173.2 ˘ 7.4 cm, body fat 22.0% ˘ 5.1%) performed the squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), Abalakov jump (AJ), 30 s Bosco test and WAnT (peak power, Ppeak; mean power, Pmean). Mean power in the Bosco test was correlated (low to large magnitude) with Pmean of the WAnT (r = 0.27, p = 0.030 in adolescents versus r = 0.56, p < 0.001 in adults). SJ, CMJ and AJ also correlated with Ppeak (0.28 ď r ď 0.46 in adolescents versus 0.58 ď r ď 0.61 in adults) and with Pmean (0.43 ď r ď 0.51 versus 0.67 ď r ď 0.71, respectively) of the WAnT (p < 0.05). In summary, the impact of the Bosco test and WAnT on muscle power varied, especially in the younger age group. Single jumping tests had larger correlations with WAnT in adults than in adolescent volleyball players. These findings should be taken into account by volleyball coaches and fitness trainers during the assessment of short-term muscle power of their athletes.

Associação de componentes dietéticos com desordens alimentares e seus agravos em adolescentes atletas tenistas e não atletas

Adolescentes apresentam rápido crescimento e intensas mudanças corporais que os tornam vulneráveis em termos nutricionais. A prática de restrições alimentares, bastante comum entre adolescentes, pode levar a inadequações nutricionais que parecem ser o primeiro sinal para o início de uma desordem alimentar (DA). A participação feminina no esporte e o número de casos de DA em adolescentes atletas de modalidades que exigem exposição do corpo, agilidade e leveza dos movimentos, como o tênis, têm aumentado nos últimos anos. As DA podem levar a complicações de saúde como irregularidades menstruais (IM) e baixa densidade mineral óssea (DMO), caracterizando a Tríade da Mulher Atleta (TMA). Desta forma, acredita-se que alguns componentes dietéticos podem ter associação com DA e seus agravos. O objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar a associação de componentes dietéticos com desordens alimentares, irregularidades menstruais e composição corporal em adolescentes atletas tenistas e não atletas do sexo feminino. Trata-se de estudo do tipo transversal. Foram realizadas avaliações do desenvolvimento puberal pela auto-aplicação dos critérios de Tanner; da composição corporal pela absortometria radiológica de dupla energia (DXA); dos parâmetros dietéticos por registro alimentar de três dias alternados; das DA pela aplicação de três questionários validados (Eating Attitudes Test - EAT-26, Bulimic Investigatory Test, Edinburgh- BITE e o Body Shape Questionnaire - BSQ); do ciclo menstrual por questionário validado e da DMO também pelo DXA. A Tríade da Mulher Atleta (TMA) foi estabelecida pela presença concomitante de DA e/ou baixa disponibilidade de energia (BDE), IM e baixa DMO. Foram realizadas associações por meio de correlações de Spearman entre as variáveis numéricas de componentes dietéticos com DA e composição corporal. Também foram realizadas associações por meio do teste qui-quadrado, teste exato de Fisher ou prova binomial para as variáveis categóricas de adequação dos componentes dietéticos com DA e seus agravos. Participaram do estudo 75 adolescentes (25 tenistas, 50 não atletas) apresentando desenvolvimento puberal similar. Atletas obtiveram melhor perfil da composição corporal quanto ao tecido adiposo. Quanto à ingestão de macronutrientes, os carboidratos merecem destaque. Em ambos os grupos, a maioria das participantes apresentaram baixa ingestão de carboidratos, sendo este percentual de inadequação significativamente maior para as atletas. Os micronutrientes que obtiveram maior percentual de inadequação foram folato e cálcio em ambos os grupos. Verificou-se que 92%, 32% e 24% das atletas e 72%, 8% e 30% das não atletas preencheram critérios para DA e/ou BDE, IM e baixa massa óssea, respectivamente. Apesar de adolescentes atletas tenistas e não atletas apresentarem prevalência de DA similares, as não atletas apresentaram maior insatisfação com a imagem corporal pelo teste BSQ. No entanto, as atletas parecem estar em situação mais grave uma vez que apresentaram maior prevalência de BDE e de IM. A DMO e a prevalência de TMA foram similares entre os grupos. Foi verificada associação inversa e significativa entre alguns componentes dietéticos (principalmente energia e carboidratos) e os escores do teste BSQ. Foi possível concluir que a baixa ingestão de alguns componentes dietéticos, principalmente energia e carboidratos, podem funcionar como marcadores para desordens alimentares em ambos os grupos a fim de previnir posteriores consequências à saúde

The relationship between muscle size and bone geometry during growth and in response to exercise

As muscles become larger and stronger during growth and in response to increased loading, bones should adapt by adding mass, size, and strength. In this unilateral model, we tested the hypothesis that (1) the relationship between muscle size and bone mass and geometry (nonplaying arm) would not change during different stages of puberty and (2) exercise would not alter the relationship between muscle and bone, that is, additional loading would result in a similar unit increment in both muscle and bone mass, bone size, and bending strength during growth. We studied 47 competitive female tennis players aged 8–17 years. Total, cortical, and medullary cross-sectional areas, muscle area, and the polar second moment of area (Ip) were calculated in the playing and nonplaying arms using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI); BMC was assessed by DXA. Growth effects: In the nonplaying arm in pre-, peri- and post-pubertal players, muscle area was linearly associated BMC, total and cortical area, and Ip (r = 0.56–0.81, P < 0.09 to < 0.001), independent of age. No detectable differences were found between pubertal groups for the slope of the relationship between muscle and bone traits. Post-pubertal players, however, had a higher BMC and cortical area relative to muscle area (i.e., higher intercept) than pre- and peri-pubertal players (P < 0.05 to < 0.01), independent of age; pre- and peri-pubertal players had a greater medullary area relative to muscle area than post-pubertal players (P < 0.05 to < 0.01). Exercise effects: Comparison of the side-to-side differences revealed that muscle and bone traits were 6–13% greater in the playing arm in pre-pubertal players, and did not increase with advancing maturation. In all players, the percent (and absolute) side-to-side differences in muscle area were positively correlated with the percent (and absolute) differences in BMC, total and cortical area, and Ip (r = 0.36–0.40, P < 0.05 to < 0.001). However, the side-to-side differences in muscle area only accounted for 11.8–15.9% of the variance of the differences in bone mass, bone size, and bending strength. This suggests that other factors associated with loading distinct from muscle size itself contributed to the bones adaptive response during growth. Therefore, the unifying hypothesis that larger muscles induced by exercise led to a proportional increase in bone mass, bone size, and bending strength appears to be simplistic and denies the influence of other factors in the development of bone mass and bone shape.

The ultrasound appearance of the patellar tendon attachment to the tibia in young athletes is conditional on gender and pubertal stage

This cross-sectional study investigated the imaging appearance of the previous termpatellarnext term tendon attachment to the tibia in young male and female tennis players of different ages and pubertal status. Forty-four competitive young players, who had been playing tennis at least for 2 years, were recruited from a tennis school and local tennis clubs. All subjects had bilateral ultrasound imaging of the previous termpatellarnext term tendon attachment to the tibia. Standard anthropometric measurements, pubertal status and injury history were recorded. Ultrasound appearance of the previous termpatellarnext term tendon attachment was categorised into three stages: cartilage attachment, insertional cartilage and mature attachment. Cartilage attachment was more prevalent in boys (32%) and extended further into puberty (until Tanner stage 4) compared to girls (6% and Tanner stage 1). Tendons with Osgood–Schlatter Disease symptoms (n = 3) did not have a cartilage attachment. Imaging appearance commonly seen in young active athletes, consistent with a clinical diagnosis of OSD, was more common in boys and in the pre- and peri-pubertal stages.

Role of exercise in the development of bone strength during growth

Exercise during growth may increase peak bone mass; if the benefits are maintained it may reduce the risk of fracture later in life (1). It is hypothesised that exercise will preferentially enhance bone formation on the surface of cortical bone that is undergoing bone modeling at the time (2). Therefore, exercise may increase bone mass accrual on the outer periosteal surface during the pre- and peri-pubertal years, and on the inner endocortical surface during puberty (3). An increase in bone formation on the periosteal surface is, however, more effective for increasing bone strength than medullary contraction (4). While exercise may have a role in osteoporosis prevention, there is little evidential basis to support this notion. It is generally accepted that weight-bearing exercise is important, but it is not known how much, how often, what magnitude or how long children need to exercise before a clinically important increase in bone density is obtained. In this thesis, the effect of exercise on the growing skeleton is investigated in two projects. The first quantifies the magnitude and number of loads associated with and in a moderate and low impact exercise program and non-structured play. The second project examines how exercise affects bone size and shape during different stages of growth. Study One: The Assessment of the Magnitude of Exercise Loading and the Skeletal Response in Girls Questions: 1) Does moderate impact exercise lead to a greater increase in BMC than low impact exercise? 2) Does loading history influence the osteogenic response to moderate impact exercise? 3) What is the magnitude and number of loads that are associated with a moderate and low impact exercise program? Methods: Sixty-eight pre-and early-pubertal girls (aged 8.9±0.2 years) were randomised to either a moderate or low impact exercise regime for 8.5-months. In each exercise group the girls received either calcium fortified (-2000 mg/week) or non-fortified foods for the duration of the study. The magnitude and number of loads associated with the exercise programs and non-structured play were assessed using a Pedar in-sole mobile system and video footage, respectively. Findings: After adjusting for baseline BMC, change in length and calcium intake, the girls in the moderate exercise intervention showed greater increases in BMC at the tibia (2.7%) and total body (1.3%) (p ≤0.05). Girl's who participated in moderate impact sports outside of school, showed greater gains in BMC in response to the moderate impact exercise program compared to the low impact exercise program (2.5 to 4.5%, p ≤0.06 to 0.01). The moderate exercise program included -400 impacts per class, that were applied in a dynamic manner and the magnitude of impact was up to 4 times body weight. Conclusion: Moderate-impact exercise may be sufficient to enhance BMC accrual during the pre-pubertal years. However, loading history is likely to influence the osteogenic response to additional moderate impact exercise. These findings contribute towards the development of school-based exercise programs aimed at improving bone health of children. Study Two: Exercise Effect on Cortical Bone Morphology During Different Stages of Maturation in Tennis Players Questions: 1) How does exercise affect bone mass (BMC) bone geometry and bone strength during different stages of growth? 2) Is there an optimal stage during growth when exercise has the greatest affect on bone strength? Methods: MRI was used to measure average total bone, cortical and medullary areas at the mid- and distal-regions of the playing and non-playing humerii in 47 pre-, peri- and post-pubertal competitive female tennis players aged 8 to 17 years. To assess bone rigidity, each image was imported into Scion Image 4.0.2 and the maximum, minimum and polar second moments of area were calculated using a custom macro. DXA was used to measure BMC of the whole humerus. Longitudinal data was collected on 37 of the original cohort. Findings: Analysis of the entire cohort showed that exercise was associated with increased BMC and cortical area (8 to 14%), and bone rigidity (11 to 23%) (all p ≤0.05). The increase in cortical bone area was associated with periosteal expansion in the pre-pubertal years and endocortical contraction in the post-pubertal years (p ≤0.05). The exercise-related gains in bone mass that were accrued at the periosteum during the pre-pubertal years, did not increase with advanced maturation and/or additional training. Conclusion: Exercise increased cortical BMC by enhancing bone formation on the periosteal surface during the pre-pubertal years and on the endocortical surface in the post-pubertal years. However, bone strength only increased in response to bone acquisition on the periosteal surface. Therefore the pre-pubertal years appear to be the most opportune time for exercise to enhance BMC accrual and bone strength

Leaving the professional tennis circuit : exploratory study of experiences and reactions from elite female athletes

In 2002, Tennis Australia commissioned a report into the experiences of elite female past players on leaving the professional tennis circuit. Australian players who were in the top 800 of the Women’s Tennis Association (WTA) end of year rankings and who had left the professional circuit within the previous 15 years were asked by mail to respond to a questionnaire. The questionnaire asked players to describe their feelings about leaving the tour during the time leading up to leaving the tour to two years after retirement. The main findings of the study suggested that those who planned to leave the tour found the transition process easy, whereas those who did not plan to leave the tour found the process difficult. Most players (66%) did not regret leaving the tour, and, although the remaining players responded that they regretted leaving, none attempted a comeback. Tennis Australia has implemented strategies to assist current players on the professional tour based on the results of this study.

Win at all costs or lose gracefully in high-stakes competition? Gender differences in professional tennis

This article examines line-call challenges by male and female professional tennis players in major tournaments around the world. In terms of utilization rates, we find that the genders behave similarly. Nevertheless, we do detect some intriguing gender differences in these challenges. First, male players’ challenges are more likely to be provoked by those of their opponents. More importantly, at tiebreaks, females are more likely to reverse an umpire’s unfavorable call, while males make relatively more unsuccessful challenges. Furthermore, we find that men are a lot more likely to make “embarrassing” line-call challenges at tiebreaks and offenses (i.e., when the shot lands at the opponent’s side of the tennis court) than women. These significant gender differences suggest that women particularly diverge from men at crucial junctures of the match such as tiebreaks. Differences in factors such as risk aversion, overconfidence, pride, shame, and strategic signalling behavior might help us to explain these gender-difference findings in line call challenges.

Understanding, developing and maintaining mental toughness in tennis

Eighteen (10 female and 8 male) recently retired top world-ranked Australian professional tennis players responded to a questionnaire that was developed to address future directions by mental toughness researchers. A series of inductive content analyses was conducted to analyze the qualitative data obtained from participants’ responses. These analyses revealed that mental toughness is a most sought-after dynamic attribute that encompasses a range of abilities (e.g., focus, work ethic) to consistently perform well under pressure. Further, mental toughness is thought to be ‘taught’ and/or ‘acquired’ over many years and can be influenced by factors that include injury, changes in a player’s technique and match results. Examples of mentally tough players were cited and reasons given as to their selection as outstanding mentally tough competitors. Sport psychologists, coaches, parents and other mentors were identified as significant members of a support team to guide and equip players to be mentally tough competitors. This study’s value to the tennis community includes practical benefits from gaining a fuller understanding of what is arguably one of the most important psychological skills in achieving excellence and enjoyment in tennis, namely mental toughness.

Coping strategies among brazilian professional and amateur football players

To identify coping strategies used among professional and amateur Brazilian football players. The Ways of Coping Scale (WOCS) was completed by 134 male football players (71 professionals: mean age = 22.77 ± 3.98 years; 63 amateurs: mean age = 17.18 ± 0.84 years) from three teams that participated in the Campeonatos Estaduais da Primeira Divisão (the state championships for the first division of football). There was no significant difference between the two groups in the type of coping strategy they used (e.g., problem-focused, emotion-focused, fantasy thoughts, religious practices and social support). Problem-focused coping was the most frequently used strategy by all of the players and social support was the least frequently used strategy. Both professional and amateur players failed to focus on the development of adequate coping strategies. Further studies are needed to better understand the impact that Brazilian athletes experience has on their choice of coping strategies during pre-competitive and competitive phases of their sport. © JPES.

Correlation between Hoff test performance, body composition and aerobic and anaerobic fitness in professional soccer players

Purpose The purpose of the study was to investigate a possible association between the distance covered in the Hoff test with parameters of maximal oxygen uptake (V_O2MAX), anaerobic threshold, anaerobic fitness, and body composition of professional adult soccer players. Methods Twenty-five professional soccer players (20 ± 3 years) participated in the study. On different days the athletes performed: a graded incremental exercise test in a laboratory to measure V_O2MAX; a specific soccer field test called the Hoff test; a running anaerobic sprint test (RAST); an incremental test on an oval circuit to determine the velocity relative to anaerobic threshold (VAnT) and an estimation of body composition. Results The average V_O2MAX corresponded to 4.1 ± 0.1 L min-1 (54.1 ± 1.2 mL kg-1 min-1 ). The average distance covered during the Hoff test was 1,442.4 ± 30.0 m. The distance covered during the Hoff test showed significant correlations with absolute and expressed in an appropriated scale V_O2MAX (r = 0.44, p = 0.02; r = 0.42, p = 0.02, respectively) while no significant differences were found with body composition, VAnT and RAST variables. Conclusions The present study demonstrated that the distance covered during the Hoff test has weak correlation with V_O2MAX determined in treadmill running, and no correlation with VAnT, body composition and RAST outcomes, probably due to the non-specificity of the proposed tests when associated with the Hoff test.

Is choking under pressure a consequence of skill-focus or increased distractibility? Results from a tennis serve task

It has been repeatedly demonstrated that athletes often choke in high pressure situations because anxiety can affect attention regulation and in turn performance. There are two competing theoretical approaches to explain the negative anxiety-performance relationship. According to skillfocus theories, anxious athletes’ attention is directed at how to execute the sport-specific movements which interrupts execution of already automatized movements in expert performers. According to distraction theories, anxious athletes are distractible and focus less on the relevant stimuli. We tested these competing assumptions in a between-subject design, as semi-professional tennis players were either assigned to an anxiety group (n = 25) or a neutral group (n = 28), and performed a series of second tennis serves into predefined target areas. As expected, anxiety was negatively related to serve accuracy. However, mediation analyses with the bootstrapping method revealed that this relationship was fully mediated by self-reported distraction and not by skill-focus.

Left atrial remodeling, early repolarization pattern, and inflammatory cytokines in professional soccer players

OBJECTIVES: Although regular physical exercise clearly reduces cardiovascular morbidity risk, long-term endurance sports practice has been recognized as a risk factor for atrial fibrillation (AF). However, the mechanisms how endurance sports can lead to AF are not yet clear. The aim of our present study was to investigate the influence of long-term endurance training on vagal tone, atrial size, and inflammatory profile in professional elite soccer players. METHODS: A total of 25 professional major league soccer players (mean age 24+/-4 years) and 20 sedentary controls (mean age 26+/-3 years) were included in the study and consecutively examined. All subjects underwent a sports cardiology check-up with physical examination, electrocardiography, echocardiography, exercise testing on a bicycle ergometer, and laboratory analysis [standard laboratory and cytokine profile: interleukin (IL)-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, IL-8, IL-10]. RESULTS: Athletes were divided into two groups according to presence or absence of an early repolarization (ER) pattern, defined as a ST-segment elevation at the J-point (STE) >/=0.1mm in 2 leads. Athletes with an ER pattern showed significantly lower heart rate and an increased E/e' ratio compared to athletes without an ER pattern. STE significantly correlated with E/e' ratio as well as with left atrial (LA) volume. The pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-8, TNF-alpha as well as the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 were significantly elevated in all soccer players. However, athletes with an ER pattern had significantly higher IL-6 plasma levels than athletes without ER pattern. Furthermore, athletes with "high" level IL-6 had significantly larger LA volumes than players with "low" level IL-6. CONCLUSIONS: Athletes with an ER pattern had significantly higher E/e' ratios, reflecting higher atrial filling pressures, higher LA volume, and higher IL-6 plasma levels. All these factors may contribute to atrial remodeling over time and thus increase the risk of AF in long-term endurance sports.

Superstars as drivers of organizational identification : empirical findings from professional soccer

This paper examines the effect of superstars on external stakeholders’ organizational identification through the lens of sport. Drawing on social identity theory and the concept of organizational identification, as well as on role model theories and superstar economics, several hypotheses are developed regarding the influence of soccer stars on their fans’ degree of team identification. Using a proprietary data set that combines archival data on professional German soccer players and clubs with survey data on more than 1,400 soccer fans, this study finds evidence for a positive effect of superstar characteristics and role model perception. Moreover, it is found that players who qualify for the definition of a superstar are more important to fans of established teams than to fans of unsuccessful teams. The player's club tenure, however, seems to have no influence on fans’ team identification. It is further argued that the effect of soccer stars on their fans is comparable to that of executives on external stakeholders, and hence, the results are applied to the business domain. The results of this study contribute to existing research by extending the list of personnel-related determinants of organizational identification.