Comparative susceptibility of mosquito populations in North Queensland, Australia to oral infection with dengue virus

Dengue is the most prevalent arthropod-borne virus, with at least 40% of the world’s population at risk of infection each year. In Australia, dengue is not endemic, but viremic travelers trigger outbreaks involving hundreds of cases. We compared the susceptibility of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes from two geographically isolated populations with two strains of dengue virus serotype 2. We found, interestingly, that mosquitoes from a city with no history of dengue were more susceptible to virus than mosquitoes from an outbreak-prone region, particularly with respect to one dengue strain. These findings suggest recent evolution of population-based differences in vector competence or different historical origins. Future genomic comparisons of these populations could reveal the genetic basis of vector competence and the relative role of selection and stochastic processes in shaping their differences. Lastly, we show the novel finding of a correlation between midgut dengue titer and titer in tissues colonized after dissemination.

Limited dengue virus replication in field-collected Aedes aegypti mosquitoes infected with Wolbachia

Introduction Dengue is one of the most widespread mosquito-borne diseases in the world. The causative agent, dengue virus (DENV), is primarily transmitted by the mosquito Aedes aegypti, a species that has proved difficult to control using conventional methods. The discovery that A. aegypti transinfected with the wMel strain of Wolbachia showed limited DENV replication led to trial field releases of these mosquitoes in Cairns, Australia as a biocontrol strategy for the virus. Methodology/Principal Findings Field collected wMel mosquitoes that were challenged with three DENV serotypes displayed limited rates of body infection, viral replication and dissemination to the head compared to uninfected controls. Rates of dengue infection, replication and dissemination in field wMel mosquitoes were similar to those observed in the original transinfected wMel line that had been maintained in the laboratory. We found that wMel was distributed in similar body tissues in field mosquitoes as in laboratory ones, but, at seven days following blood-feeding, wMel densities increased to a greater extent in field mosquitoes. Conclusions/Significance Our results indicate that virus-blocking is likely to persist in Wolbachia-infected mosquitoes after their release and establishment in wild populations, suggesting that Wolbachia biocontrol may be a successful strategy for reducing dengue transmission in the field.

Defining the spatiotemporal surveillance space for alien species’ invasions using approximate Bayesian computation

The spatiotemporal dynamics of an alien species invasion across a real landscape are typically complex. While surveillance is an essential part of a management response, planning surveillance in space and time present a difficult challenge due to this complexity. We show here a method for determining the highest probability sites for occupancy across a landscape at an arbitrary point in the future, based on occupancy data from a single slice in time. We apply to the method to the invasion of Giant Hogweed, a serious weed in the Czech republic and throughout Europe.

A systematic approach to biological control agent exploration and prioritisation for prickly acacia (Acacia nilotica ssp. indica)

Agent selection for prickly acacia has been largely dictated by logistics and host specificity. Given that detailed ecological information is available on this species in Australia, we propose that it is possible to select agents based on agent efficacy and desired impact on prickly acacia demography. We propose to use the 'plant genotype' and 'climatic' similarities as filters to identify areas for future agent exploration; and plant response to herbivory and field host range as 'predictive' filters for agent prioritisation. Adopting such a systematic method that incorporates knowledge from plant population ecology and plant-herbivore interactions makes agent selection decisions explicit and allow more rigorous evaluations of agent performance and better understanding of success and failure of agents in weed biological control.

Genetic engineering of microorganisms: free release into the environment

Genetic engineering now makes possible the insertion of DNA from many organisms into other prokaryotic, eukaryotic and viral hosts. This technology has been used to construct a variety of such genetically engineered microorganisms (GEMs). The possibility of accidental or deliberate release of GEMs into the natural environment has recently raised much public concern. The prospect of deliberate release of these microorganisms has prompted an increased need to understand the processes of survival, expression, transfer and rearrangement of recombinant DNA molecules in microbial communities. The methodology which is being developed to investigate these processes will greatly enhance our ability to study microbial population ecology.

A ecologia em miniatura: o menor tetrápodo do Brasil, Brachycephalus didactylus (Izecksohn, 1971) (Anura: Brachycephalidae) em uma área de Mata Atlântica no Espírito Santo, Sudeste do Brasil

O processo de miniaturização em anuros pode ter implicações ecológicas como, por exemplo, a redução no tamanho da ninhada produzida pelas fêmeas, o aumento do tamanho relativo dos ovos e o desenvolvimento direto. O consequente reduzido tamanho da boca tende também a constituir um fator limitante no consumo de presas por estes pequenos anuros, tornando acessível ao consumo apenas uma gama restrita de presas diminutas. Assim, estudamos parâmetros da ecologia de uma população do anuro Brachycephalus didactylus, em uma área de Mata Atlântica no sul do Espírito Santo, objetivando ampliar o conhecimento sobre tais parâmetros que compreenderam o dimorfismo sexual, algumas características da reprodução, a dieta e a relação com a disponibilidade de atrópodos no folhiço e uso do microhabitat. A amostragem dos dados ocorreu durante um ano, nas estações seca e chuvosa. Brachycephalus didactylus possuiu dimorfismo sexual, com fêmeas sendo maiores do que os machos. O maior tamanho atingido pelas fêmeas provavelmente resulta da seleção intrassexual atuando nas fêmeas para favorecer um maior investimento na massa dos ovos, já que a espécie possui um tamanho de ninhada consideravelmente reduzido (um a dois ovos). A dieta de B. didactylus foi composta por um espectro relativamente amplo de presas (17 itens), tendo elevadas proporções de pequenas presas como Acari e Collembola. O consumo de Formicidae (formigas) foi evitado por B. didactylus, apesar de essa presa ser a mais abundante no folhiço, o que categorizou o anuro como um "especialista em não comer formigas" ("non-ant specialist", sensu Toft 1980a). O reduzido tamanho da boca nas fêmeas de B. didactylus limitou o tamanho máximo de presas passíveis de serem ingeridas pelo anuro e restringindo-o ao consumo de presas pequenas, com maiores indivíduos consumindo um número maior de presas. Por fim, B. didactylus apresentou uma utilização essencialmente horizontal do hábitat, sendo mais frequentemente encontrado sobre o folhiço no chão da mata.

Comportamento territorial de Lipaugus lanioides (Aves: Cotingidae) em área de Floresta Atlântica na Ilha Grande, RJ

O comportamento territorial é uma estratégia de monopolização de recursos quando esses são essenciais para o sucesso reprodutivo de um organismo. Um território é uma área de uso exclusivo, defendido contra invasores coespecíficos de mesmo sexo, resultante da interação social entre vizinhos. A territorialidade exerce importante papel no sistema reprodutivo de uma espécie, pois influencia a participação do macho na reprodução. Nesses casos, as fêmeas podem obter vantagens diretas, como sítios de nidificação e cuidado parental. O comportamento territorial também exerce influência na regulação do tamanho populacional através de uma relação entre custos e benefícios individuais: em ambientes ótimos e com alta densidade populacional, os territórios são pequenos com pouca substituição, e jovens machos têm dificuldade para conseguirem estabelecer-se. O presente estudo teve como objetivo investigar aspectos comportamentais do tropeiro-da-serra, espécie rara e endêmica de Floresta Atlântica, com distribuição bastante restrita. Ao longo de 18 meses na Ilha Grande (RJ), analisamos seu comportamento territorial, mensuramos os tamanhos de territórios individuais de machos e realizamos estimativas de densidade populacional. O playback foi utilizado para atestar a presença de territorialidade na espécie, para simular a aproximação de coespecíficos (interações intraespecíficas) e para induzir o deslocamento dos indivíduos até os limites de seus territórios. Para investigar as respostas comportamentais à aproximação de invasores, analisamos quantitativamente as reações dos indivíduos a estímulos sonoros (vocalização espontânea e induzida pelo playback). Os territórios individuais foram definidos em duas estações reprodutivas através do método do Mínimo Polígono Convexo (MPC) em uma área equivalente a 20ha. A densidade populacional foi definida através do número de territórios encontrados e pelo número de indivíduos vistos/ouvidos por unidade de área através de transecções lineares. As vocalizações espontâneas e induzidas ocorreram somente entre os meses de agosto a janeiro, caracterizando uma estação reprodutiva bem definida. Durante este período, os machos tornaram-se solitários e agressivos com coespecíficos; na fase não-reprodutiva, entretanto, os indivíduos mostram-se sociáveis, forrageando em pequenos grupos de até quatro indivíduos. Os resultados indicam que o território é estabelecido para a monopolização de alimento e acesso às fêmeas. Essas observações sugerem que a espécie estudada é territorialista. Foram estimados sete territórios com valores entre 0,21ha e 0,73ha (0,43 + 0,16ha). Os indivíduos apresentaram fidelidade territorial, ocupando os mesmos territórios em duas estações reprodutivas. A densidade populacional de L. lanioides apresentou flutuações ao longo do ano, com os maiores valores encontrados durante a estação reprodutiva (variando entre 0,37 e 1,84 indivíduos/ha). Flutuações na densidade populacional podem apontar migrações altitudinais motivadas por variações na disponibilidade de recursos alimentares. Concluímos que o comportamento reprodutivo de L. lanioides não se enquadra no conceito de sistema reprodutivo em leks, conhecido em outros cotingídeos (ex. Lipaugus vociferans), no qual a corte é um comportamento social, com disputa por status de dominância, e o papel do macho resume-se à cópula sem benefícios diretos para as fêmeas. Dessa forma, os resultados do presente estudo trazem informações originais sobre a biologia de L. lanioides

珙桐种群生态学研究

本文是中国科学院“八五”重大项目：“生物多样性保护与持续利用的生物学基础”中的子课题“中国濒危特有动、植物保护生物学及种群生存力分析”的一部分。本文研究了我国一级保护植物珙桐(Davidia involucrata Baill．)在种群生态学、群落生态学各方面的特征，主要包括其天然分布，群落类型，种群空间分布格局，植株生长规律，种群生物量结构及变化规律，元素化学成份，种群年龄结构，数量统计及生存力分析等。 研究结果表明：珙桐分布区是连续的，其变种光叶珙桐（Davidia involucrata var. vilmoriniana (Dode) wanger)的分布区存在间断;珙桐群落可依优势种不同分为多种类型，但都属于亚热带中山落叶——常绿阔叶混交林类型;群落区系成份复杂，地理成份以北温带及东亚成分占绝对优势：种群空间分布格局无论在不同群落中还是在不同发育阶段中均属集群分布：植株胸径、树高及材积生长符合Logistic方程：种群生物量随群落类型不同而有较大差异，种群增长规律符合Logistic增长;种群年龄结构稳定，但实生苗的匮乏对种群更新不利：种群存活曲线属Deevy I型。对影响种群生存力的因素分析表明，主要的因素有系统压力和环境因素。

银山种群生态学研究

银杉(Cathaya argyrophylla)是我国特有的珍贵植物，被认为处于濒危状态。本文结合前人的研究，通过大量的野外调查，弄清了银杉的种质资源现状，分析银杉的群落特征，在此基础上重点研究了银杉种群的主要特征。 研究表明，现存银杉间断分布于我国亚热带山地，形成4个集结地，资源总量（株高大于1米者）不占4000棵。现有银杉群落处于演替的早、中期阶段，到演替后期，银杉将被组成地带性植被的优势阔叶树种取代。 银杉种群的空间分布格局与银杉的生物学特性及微环境有关。在老龄种群内，容易产生林窗，银杉在林窗形成异龄群聚，以寻求充足的光照和营养支持，种群多表现为集群分布;在群落内微环境异质性较明显时，也导致集群分布。在各种银杉群落中，就银杉种群而言，光因子可能是影响其分布格局的主导因子。银杉种群集群分布的格局规模虽在和群落种群间有明显差异，但大多在面积小于16平方米的较小尺度下发生。 银杉各群落类型中银杉种群年龄化加剧的现象，有些种群在某些龄组出现断层。从年龄结构看，有些银杉种群处于被阔叶树种更替的境地。 林窗干扰对银杉种群的更新意义重大，在林窗内和非林窗银杉群落内，银杉种群的重要值均为最大;银杉幼树在林窗内的高生长量普遍大于荫蔽的林冠下，这些充分说明银杉是典型的林窗更新方式。 银杉结实有明显的大小年之分，一般在2-3个小年之后为1-2个大年，母树结实量不与树龄成正相关，在植株间差别很大。每个球果出种量平均为4.267粒，无种子的球果占比重达12.2%。饱满种子的平均重量仅为0.0197克，远远低于乔木树种种子的平均水平。林地内自然善状况下播种，种子发芽率仅为21%，松土后播种可使发芽率加倍。种子宜于湿沙贮藏，干藏导致种子发芽率大幅度下降。松鼠是长期危害球果的主要动物，其危害率可达15%。 对银杉生长规律的研究发现，幼龄银杉在全光照下和荫蔽林冠下比在林窗内高生长都要缓慢;成年银杉高生长盛期在130年前出现;银杉种群地上部分生物量在大部分群落类型间介于62000-91000千克/公顷之间。 第四纪冰川时期，强烈的气候变迁，造成银杉种群的大尺度减少，并导致其间断分布于我国亚热带山地;冰后期以来的气候波动及近代剧烈的人类活动使已经片断化的银杉种群数量进一步下降。从而导致银杉遗传多样性低和生殖障碍大，后者反过来又进一步引起种群数量下降和分布区缩小，形成恶性循环，造成银杉濒危。

疏花水柏枝种群生态学及繁殖研究

疏花水柏枝(Myricaria laxiflora(Franch．)P．Y.Zhang et Y.J．Zhang)是我国三峡特有植物，是目前发现的唯一一种三峡水库蓄水后将被全部淹没的高等植物物种。本文结合前人的研究，通过详细的野外调查，摸清了疏花水柏枝的野生种群的分布及自然环境状况，较为全面、系统地研究了其生物学、群落学、种群学、生殖生态学等各方面的特征。最后，对其繁殖技术进行了着重研究，并提出了疏花水柏枝的的保护对策。 疏花水柏枝分布于我国亚热带长江三峡地区，位于东经109-0 32’~110-042、北纬30-0 59’~ 31-05’，海拔70 - 150米的范围内。疏花水柏枝为常绿灌木，具有很强的耐水淹的特性。其群落的植物区系组成中，以北温带分布和世界分布属为主，在各群落中疏花水柏枝均为建群种。在较小的尺度上（间距1m或更小），各群落中的疏花水柏枝种群均表现为聚集分布;在较大的尺度上（间距1.44m或更大），砾质地表的几个群落中疏花水柏枝种群表现为聚集分布，而沙质地表的群落中则表现为随机分布;幼苗在各种尺度上均表现为强烈的聚集分布。不同的群落中，疏花水柏枝种群的生物量有很大差异，变化范围为2,13 lt/hm2～5.340t/hm2，平均值为3.976t/hm2。疏花水柏枝的种群总体年龄结构比较稳定，但在不同的群落中差异较大。疏花水柏枝的的结实率高达95.12%，单位面积出种量平均为1.242×1()9粒/hm2。种子细小，寿命较短，新鲜饱满种子发芽率可达100%。冬季干旱和夏季水淹导致幼苗大量死亡。疏花水柏枝的扦插繁殖可获得较高的生根率，一年生插条的生根率明显高于多年生的插条。扦插苗移栽的成活率较高，并于第二年即可开花结实。种子繁殖也可获得较高的出苗率，但幼苗的死亡率很高。为保护这个物种，首先应加强宣传力度，进一步加强繁殖技术的研究，各北京植物园应大量引种栽培，并对其进行全面深入的研究，最终将其完全回归大自然。

神农架巴山冷杉林种群生态学研究

巴山冷杉（Abies fargesii）是松科冷杉属常绿乔木，是秦巴山地森林的重要树种之一，为我国特有的重要用材树种和经济林树种。近年来，由于乱砍滥伐、采育失调等人为干扰的影响，许多地区的巴山冷杉群落处于消退状态，原始林日趋减少。神农架地区是巴山冷杉天然分布区的东界，这里分布着大片巴山冷杉纯林，对这一地区巴山冷杉的种群生态学的专门性研究较少。本研究包括三方面的内容：1.神农架地区巴山冷杉林的物种组成与群落结构;2.巴山冷杉林的种群结构与动态;3.巴山冷杉群落主要树种的分布格局，旨在为巴山冷杉林的培育及天然林的保护提供理论依据。 神农架巴山冷杉林具有典型的温带常绿针叶林性质，巴山冷杉在群落中占绝对优势，红桦、粉红杜鹃为乔木层次优种。群落物种组成丰富，1公顷样地内共有维管束植物34科63属74种，以温带性分布占优势，群落中以中小型革质、单叶的常绿高位芽植物占多数。群落成层现象明显，结构不很复杂，在垂直方向上可划分为乔木层、灌木层、草本层和苔藓层，乔木层没有明显的亚层，灌木层不太发达，草本层以菊科植物为主，林下苔藓层发达。 巴山冷杉种群为进展型种群，幼苗储备丰富，但幼树缺失，属林窗更新方式。高度结构基本呈倒金字塔形，植株个体数随冠幅级的递增呈倒“J”形分布，冠幅小于20m2的植株占87.4％，其中5m2以下最多（30.8％）。冠幅与胸径的关系比与树高更密切，冠幅与胸径的回归方程为y＝2.7118e0.0308x，R2＝0.520。 定量研究了0-40m尺度上巴山冷杉、红桦和粉红杜鹃种群的空间格局。结果表明，巴山冷杉种群在0-16m尺度上表现为聚集分布，16-40m尺度上表现为随机分布;各年龄阶段的分布格局也有所不同，幼年种群为强烈的聚集分布，随着巴山冷杉的生长，聚集强度降低，逐渐扩散为随机分布。红桦种群在0-2ｍ、11-18ｍ以及20-21ｍ的尺度上表现为聚集分布，在其余尺度上为随机分布;a2、a3级的个体在0-4m的小尺度上均为聚集分布，尺度大于4ｍ时全部表现为随机分布。粉红杜鹃为聚集分布，且受研究尺度与年龄大小的影响不大，表现出对高竞争环境的适应性特征。

沙地云杉种群生态学研究

本文运用种群生态学的理论和方法研究了内蒙古白音敖包沙地云杉的种群生态学。编制了沙地云杉种群的生命表、生殖力表，建立了其Leslie矩阵。分析了沙地云杉种群的空间分布格局及其动态。研究了沙地云杉高生长与环境条件的关系。运用自疏理论分析了沙地云杉的自疏过程。研究了沙地云杉种群的性状变异、生殖对策并对稳定性进行了探讨。本文的研究在国内外尚属首次，对更好地保护和扩大这片稀有的森林具有一定的指导意义。

青藏高原东缘高山林线乔木种群生态特征研究

青藏高原东部分布着世界最高的林线，该区域也是由欧亚北温带物种形成的林线的南界。在大面积野外踏勘的基础上，选择青藏高原东部具有典型高山林线分布的三个地点（滇西北白马雪山、川西北鹧鸪山及岷江源地区）作为研究区，从种群的结构、生存特征、分布格局及分形特征等方面对青藏高原东缘高山林线乔木种群生态学特征进行了研究，并在此基础上探讨了人类活动对林线种群生态特征及林线格局的影响。结果表明，林线区乔木树种多以单种群形式存在，林线区群落结构简单，乔木层多为单一树种组成，其生长型较之郁闭林发生了急剧的变化：树木高度急剧下降，而发展多茎多分枝的生长型。生长型的转变是高山林线乔木对恶劣自然条件的形态适应。 研究发现，在青藏高原东缘，阴坡林线乔木主要是冷杉（Abies spp.），阳坡主要由圆柏（Sabina spp.）组成，少数地方还有云杉（Picea spp.）。阴坡乔木种群结构多表现为增长型，幼苗和幼树在种群中占较大比重，种群潜在自然更新能力较强，但幼龄个体死亡率非常高，存活曲线多接近Deevey-Ⅲ型；阳坡乔木种群幼苗个体数极少，幼树相对增加。野外调查表明，人为活动较频繁的阳坡林线区幼苗数量极少甚至缺失，而受人为活动干扰较小的样地中幼苗和幼树数量明显增多，从一个侧面说明放牧等人类活动可能对林线种群的更新带来较大影响，而对卡卡沟围栏内外的样地分析也进一步证明了这一结果。 所研究林线乔木种群各龄级的空间格局在不同尺度上表现为聚集、随机和均匀分布，以聚集分布为主；各龄级在不同尺度上表现出显著的相关性，幼苗通常与另外两个龄级的关联性较密切。各龄级间显著的相关性表明不同龄级个体在空间交错分布，有利于对各种资源的充分利用，对种群的生存和发展非常有利，反映了高山生态系统恶劣生境中种群的一种适应对策。 林线乔木种群各龄级分布格局的计盒维数有差别，林线种群的计盒维数总是小于郁闭林种群的计盒维数。另外，郁闭林各龄级计盒维数通常也高于林线各龄级，表明不同海拔或者不同群落类型中的乔木树种具有不同的水平空间占据能力。林线区种群分布格局的计盒维数都很低，占据现实水平空间的程度较低，具有相对较高的生态间隙维，其潜在占据空间的能力较高，群落还可提供给种群的最大空间限度较大，但实际上由于受群落中种内、种间的竞争及林线区恶劣的生态环境条件的限制，其潜在空间占据能力可能难以表现出来。 青藏高原东缘高海拔地带以季节性游牧为主要的资源利用和生产方式，阳坡森林郁闭度低于阴坡，灌丛数量和种类较阴坡少，融雪早且积雪时间短，所以阳坡包括高山林线区成为当地牧民游牧路线的必经之地。牲畜的践踏、啃食使得幼龄乔木树种个体数量大大减少，严重阻碍了林线乔木种群的自然更新，同时种群占据空间的能力也明显降低。因此可以认为，在青藏高原东部地区，山地游牧等人为干扰叠加于恶劣的自然条件，阳坡林线的自然更新潜力受到抑制，其生存状态较之阴坡林线显著恶化，并可使阳坡林线高度逐渐降低。高山林线区森林一旦破坏在短时间内很难有效更新和恢复，因此，对于处于恶劣高山生境中的乔木种群应加强保护，同时适度控制人为干扰强度和幅度以减少其直接和间接破坏，防止阳坡林线退化并促进高山生态系统的自然恢复。 Eastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau has the highest timberline of the world. On the basis of field surveys and literature reviews, three typical alpine timberlines were chosen for in-depth studies, i.e., Baima Snow Mountain in northwest Yunnan, Zhegu Mountain and the waterhead area of Minjiang River in west Sichuan. Using the methodologis of population ecology, we analyzed the population structure, survival characteristics, spatial point patterns and fractal dimensions of the timberline tree populations and discussed the impacts of grazing on the structure and spatial pattern of alpine timberline. Compared with closed forests, the community structure of timberline is simpler, usually with one or two species constituting the tree layer. Differences also exist in the growth forms: the trees were significantly shorter with more stems and branches, reflecting morphological adaptation of trees to the severe conditions at timberline. In the eastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, Abies spp. often formed alpine timberline in the north-facing slope while Sabina spp. and sometimes Picea spp. in the south- facing slope. The population structures of north-facing slope showed an increasing trend, with numerous seedlings and saplings. However, the survival curves tend to follow Deevy-III because of high dead ratio of young individuals. There are only few seedlings in the south-facing slope with heavy grazing, demonstrating that human disturbance may prevent regeneration at alpine timberline, which was confirmed by comparisons between fenced enclosures and control plots in the Kaka Valley. Depending on the spatial scales on consideration, the individuals of different age-classes showed clumping, random or even distribution, but mostly with clumping distribution. At all scales, individuals in different age-classes were all significantly correlated with each other while the seedlings were usually more correlated to two other age classes. This high degree of correlation among different age classes indicates that individuals of different age classes are spatially interlocked with each other, which helps sufficient utilization of various resources and is conducive to the survival and development of population. It is another adaptation strategy for trees at the severe environment. The spatial patterns of different age classes had different box dimension. In general, the box dimensions of total individuals and each age class at timberline are always smaller than that of closed forests, suggesting that space occupation capacity is not the same for populations at different altitude or in different communities. Populations on both the south- and the north-facing slopes had a very low box dimensions (far away from the max., 2), however, the lower the box dimension, the bigger the potential space provided by community. In fact, because of inner- and inter- competition as well as the severe conditions at timberline, this kind of potential ability can hardly be realized. Mountain pastoralism is the major type of as well as the only most effective way of resource uses in the high elevation regions of the eastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Due to lower canopy cover, less bushes and short snow-cover time, south-facing slopes became the favorite pastures. Damages from livestock through tramping, browsing and others have greatly reduced the number of young individuals. As a result, the potential of timberline trees to regenerate and their ability to occupy more space are greatly inhitibted. We conclude that human disturbances (mountain pastoralism) as well as harsh environmental conditions co-worked to inhibit the regeneration of tree populations in the south-facing slope and made south slopes more difficult than the north-facing slopes for trees to survive and develop, resulting a gradual retreat of timberline in the north-facing slopes. Forests at alpine timberline are susceptible to disturbance and difficult to regenerate and restore once damaged and controlling human disturbances is important for protecting the forest ecosystems at the timberline area.

镇海棘螈和大凉疣螈年龄结构研究

通过趾骨切片可以准确鉴定年龄，了解一个物种的最长寿命，也为我们研究确定一个物种的生长特点、性成熟期,以及一个地区一个物种的年龄结构、种群生态(Marnell，1998)和群落生态提供重要信息(Morrison，et a1.，2004)。 本论文使用骨骼鉴龄法对中国浙江省宁波市北仑瑞岩寺林场的镇海棘螈（Echinotriton chinhaiensis）雌性繁群进行了年龄结构研究。结果显示：第一次参加繁殖的年龄为3龄；繁群中数量占优势的是5龄、6龄。而在6龄以后参加繁殖的雌性个体数便开始随着年龄的增大而逐渐减少。参加繁殖的雌性年龄最大个体为8龄。平均年龄为5.13龄。同时对其年龄和头体长、体全长的相关性检验,发现其年龄与头体长和体全长不相关,镇海棘螈雌性的生长方式表现为性成熟后能量主要用于繁殖。 另外,对李子坪大凉疣螈(Tylototriton taliangensis) 雄性繁群进行了年龄结构研究。结果显示：大凉疣螈雄性第一次参加繁殖的年龄为4龄；繁群中数量占优势的是5龄、6龄、7龄。而在7龄以后参加繁殖的雄性个体数便开始随着年龄的增大而逐渐减少。参加繁殖的雄性中年龄最大的个体为10龄。平均年龄为6.7龄。对其年龄和头体长、体全长的相关性检验,发现其年龄与头体长和体全长不相关,大凉疣螈雄性生长特点也表现为性成熟后生长缓慢的特点。 研究材料方面，本文采用野外采样与标本馆标本相结合的方式获得了中国蝾螈科2个重要保护物种繁殖群体的剪（指）趾材料，使得建立于其上的年龄结构工作更加可靠、更加具有代表性。 此外,本论文讨论了镇海棘螈瑞岩寺种群繁殖总量年度间的差异及其产生原因。将1998、1999、2000、2008、2009年镇海棘螈（Echinotriton chinhaiensis） 瑞岩寺种群的繁殖量进行比较，发现虽然雌性平均窝卵数比较稳定，但繁殖总量小于1998、1999、2000年任何一年总产卵量的50%。对2008年镇海棘螈繁殖量大幅下降的原因分析发现, 2007年9、10月影响严重台风的两次强台风、瑞岩寺景区开发等因素可能是造成近年该种群繁殖量大幅下降的原因。而2008年初50年不遇的低温是否影响镇海棘螈的繁殖值得进一步追踪研究。2009年繁殖量较2008年没有明显的增长，可能是由于2007年的台风影响了其繁殖营养的积累。台风的影响可能存在滞后现象,对此有待进一步监测证明。 本研究首次对中国蝾螈科物种进行的年龄结构鉴定，为进一步了解中国蝾螈科动物的种群生态打下了坚实的基础。 Using skeletochronology, we can know the life span of a species, age of reaching sexual mature, and of course age structure, which are vital(Morrison，et a1.，2004). Skeletochronology was performed on Echinotriton chinhaiensis Ruiyansi female population. The result shows that: The oldest individuals were 8 years old and the youngest ones were 3 years old. Individuals of age class 5(39.13%) and 6(21.74%) were most numerous. The number of individuals participated in reproduction decreased with the increase of age after the sixth year. Average age is 5.13 years. There is no correlation between age and body size (SVL and TL). For female chinhai salamander, energy is devoted to reproduction after reaching sexual maturation. While using skeletochronology to study Tylototriton taliangensis Liziping male population, the oldest individuals is 10 years old, and the youngest ones is 4 years old. Individuals of the age class 5, 6, and 7 dominat this population. The number of individuals decrease with the increase of age also after the seventh year. Average age is 6.7 years old in this population. there is also no correlation between age and body size (SVL and TL).It turned out that T. taliangensis tend to grow slowly after reaching sexual maturation. In this thesis, specimens from both wild and museum were used to gain enough toe clipping samples. A big sample size guarantees the reliability of this study. In the meantime, E. chinhaiensis’s annual reproduction of the year 1998, 1999, 2000 ,2008,and 2009 was compared. The result shows there is a huge decline in E. chinhaiensis’s annual reproduction in 2008,even the egg clutch is very stable. After analyzing, it turned out the huge decline in 2008 was probably caused by typhoon in 2007, besides the effect of tourism development and cash crop planting. While the impact of extreme weather of 2008 on reproduction needs further investigation. In the year 2009, there is no obvious increase in annual reproduction. It maybe due to lasting impact of typhoon in 2007. It is the first age-structure study on these two Chinese salamanders. A solid foundation was laid for further population ecology study of these two species.

镇海棘螈繁殖群体生态和遗传结构研究

genetics, such as: population size, reproduction, mating system, growth, development,genetic structure and systematics status; The main results are presented below: The seasonal variation of the operational sexual ratio of this animal was found in the field and the ration always bias the female in the breeding season. Aiming at this character and considering the distance of time and space of both sexual habitat in breeding season, we census female population first by toe-clipping mark-recapture method, then estimated the population size with the definitive sexual ratio. Up to now, this species was found only at the Beilun district of the Ningbo City. The population size of the Ruiyan Temple Forest Park approximates to 369. The status of this population is extremely endangered, so besides protecting this population at the original locality, we also suggested to breed the salamander in fenced locality and to hatch embryos artificially, and send metamorphosed juveniles back to nature. We can transfer some individuals to other similar habitats or breed them under artificial conditions for saving this species from extinction. The early developmental stage of the Chinhai salamander is the same as its relative species, E. andersoni. Their balanceres are poorly developed and disappear very early. Temperature and moisture significantly influence the embryonic development of the Chinhai salamander. The embryonic stage is approx. 29 days under room temperature. The hatchling grows in a logarithmic curve. The larvae stage in water is approx. 58- 88 days. Many factors influence the nomal development, including two aspects of internal and external. Due to these factors, the effective protected measures were presented in detail. The breeding migration of E. chinhaiensis takes place at late March～late April every year. This salamander's hatching rate is high, but the rate of hatchling migrating into water is low. The average effectiveness of all the nest sites is 36.7%. The maternal self-conservation was contrary to the reproductive success of the egg-laying strategy. In the strategy of egg-laying behavior, the first factor selected by the female was its self-conservation, the second is embryonic survival rate, and the last is rate of hatchling survival rate. The oviposition selection is significant for the survival of the larvae. Based on the analysis of the evolutionary process of reproductive behaviors nad egg-laying site selections of all genera of the family Salamandridae, we deduced that perhaps Echinotriton is a transitional type in the evolutionary process from water to land. Due to its location in the adaptive stage in the terrestrial evolution, Echinotriton chinhaiensis's terrestrial nest may be one of important reason that causes this species to be endangered. The genetic deversity analysis shows that although the population size of the Chinhai salamander is quite small compared to other Chinese salamandrid species, the genetic diversity of this population is not reduce remarkably. We explain this phenomena with the polygamy mating system of this species. The result of 4 families' parenthood determinations shows that the parenhood determination can be taken without any paternal information. The "children" of every female include rich genetic information from at least two "fathers". It implies that female Chinhai salamander mates more than once with different males in a breeding season. The molecular evidence, the behavioral observation evidences and the sperm evidence in the female cloaca proved that this species has a polygamy mating system. The kin recognition in the mating of adult salamander was first discussed. The taxonomic status and phylogenetic relationships of 12 species representing 6 genera in the family Salamandridae were studied using DNA fingerprinting. The results showed that the DNA fingerprinting. The results showed that the DNA fingerprinting patterns demonstrated rich genetic diversity and species diversity, and also revealed the taxonomic status and phylogenetic relationshipes of higher taxa to a certain extent. The results are highly consistent with those obtained from the studies based on the morphology, ecology, cytology and molecular biology. The compreshensive analysis indicate that Tylototrition hainanensis and T. wenxianensis should be valid species; Echinotriton should be a valid genus;Tylotortriton is a natural cluster; Tylotortriton asperrimus should be put in Tylototrition rather than in Echinotriton, Hypselotriton and Allomestriton are synonyms of Cynops and Paramesotriton, respectively. There are three main groups in Chinese salamandride: Cynops, Paramesotriton and Pachytrition from the first group, the species of the Tylototriton from the second, and E. chinhaiensis composes the third.