Measuring and modelling mixture toxicity of imidacloprid and thiacloprid on Caenorhabditis elegans and Eisenia fetida

While the standard models of concentration addition and independent action predict overall toxicity of multicomponent mixtures reasonably, interactions may limit the predictive capability when a few compounds dominate a mixture. This study was conducted to test if statistically significant systematic deviations from concentration addition (i.e. synergism/antagonism, dose ratio- or dose level-dependency) occur when two taxonomically unrelated species, the earthworm Eisenia fetida and the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans were exposed to a full range of mixtures of the similar acting neonicotinoid pesticides imidacloprid and thiacloprid. The effect of the mixtures on C. elegans was described significantly better (p<0.01) by a dose level-dependent deviation from the concentration addition model than by the reference model alone, while the reference model description of the effects on E. fetida could not be significantly improved. These results highlight that deviations from concentration addition are possible even with similar acting compounds, but that the nature of such deviations are species dependent. For improving ecological risk assessment of simple mixtures, this implies that the concentration addition model may need to be used in a probabilistic context, rather than in its traditional deterministic manner. Crown Copyright (C) 2008 Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Effects of metals on life cycle parameters of the earthworm Eisenia fetida exposed to field-contaminated, metal-polluted soils

Two control and eight field-contaminated, metal-polluted soils were inoculated with Eisenia fetida (Savigny, 1826). Three, 7, 14, 21, 28 and 42 days after inoculation, earthworm survival, body weight, cocoon production and hatching rate were measured. Seventeen metals were analysed in E.fetida tissue, bulk soil and soil solution. Soil organic carbon content, texture, pH and cation exchange capacity were also measured. Cocoon production and hatching rate were more sensitive to adverse conditions than survival or weight change. Soil properties other than metal concentration impacted toxicity. The most toxic soils were organic-poor (1-10 g C kg(-1)), sandy soils (c. 74% sand), with intermediate metal concentrations (e.g. 7150-13, 100 mg Ph kg(-1), 2970-53,400 mg Zn kg(-1)). Significant relationships between soil properties and the life cycle parameters were determined. The best coefficients of correlation were generally found for texture, pH, Ag, Cd, Mg, Pb, Tl, and Zn both singularly and in multivariate regressions. Studies that use metal-amended artificial soils are not useful to predict toxicity of field multi-contaminated soils. (c) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Uptake kinetics of metals by the earthworm Eisenia fetida exposed to field-contaminated soils

It is well known that earthworms can accumulate metals. However, most accumulation studies focus on Cd-, Cu-, Pb- or Zn-amended soils, additionally few studies consider accumulation kinetics. Here we model the accumulation kinetics of 18 elements by Eisenia fetida, exposed to 8 metal-contaminated and 2 uncontaminated soils. Tissue metal concentration was determined after 3, 7,14, 21, 28 and 42 days. Metal elimination rate was important in determining time to reach steady-state tissue metal concentration. Uptake flux to elimination rate ratios showed less variation and lower values for essential than for non-essential metals. In theory kinetic rate constants are dependent only on species and metal. Therefore it should be possible to predict steady-state tissue metal concentrations on the basis of very few measurements using the rate constants. However, our experiments show that it is difficult to extrapolate the accumulation kinetic constants derived using one soil to another. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The impact of Eisenia veneta on As, Cu, Pb and Zn uptake by ryegrass (Lolium perenne L)

Earthworms are an essential part of the soil fauna in many global soils, represent a significant proportion of the soil biomass and are regarded as a useful indicator of soil health and quality (Edwards, 2004). They are also often the subject of inoculation programmes during the restoration of degraded lands (Butt, 1999) and the inoculation of earthworms to metal-contaminated soils has been suggested (Dickinson, 2000) largely due to the role earthworms are known to play in soil formation at such sites (Frouz et al., 2007).

Effects of desiccation on seed germination, cracking, fungal infection and survival in storage of Sterculia foetida L

Seeds of Sterculia foetida were tested for germination following desiccation and subsequent hermetic storage. Whereas seeds at 10.3% moisture content were intact and provided 98% germination, further desiccation reduced germination substantially. The majority of seed coats had cracked after desiccation to 5.1% moisture content. Ability to germinate was not reduced after 12 months' hermetic storage at 10.3% and 7.3% moisture content at 15 degrees C or -18 degrees C, but was reduced considerably at 5.1%. Fungal infection was detected consistently for cracked seeds in germination tests and they did not germinate. However, almost all embryos extracted from cracked seeds germinated if first disinfected with sodium hypochlorite (1%, 5 minutes). In addition. 80 -100% of disinfected extracted embryos from cracked seeds stored hermetically for 28 d at -18 degrees C or -82 degrees C with 3.3% to 6.0% moisture content, and excised embryos stored in this way, were able to germinate. Hence. failure of the very dry seeds of Sterculia foetida to germinate was not due to embryo death from desiccation but to cracking increasing susceptibility to fungal infection upon rehydration. Cracking was associated negatively and strongly with relative humidity and appears to be a mechanical consequence of substantial differences between the isotherms of whole seeds compared with cotyledons and axes.

Effects of biochar and the earthworm Eisenia fetida on the bioavailability of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and potentially toxic elements

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and potentially toxic elements (PTEs) were monitored over 56 days in calcareous contaminated-soil amended with either or both biochar and Eisenia fetida. Biochar reduced total (449 to 306mgkg(-1)) and bioavailable (cyclodextrin extractable) (276 to 182mgkg(-1)) PAHs, PAH concentrations in E. fetida (up to 45%) but also earthworm weight. Earthworms increased PAH bioavailability by >40%. Combined treatment results were similar to the biochar-only treatment. Earthworms increased water soluble Co (3.4 to 29.2mgkg(-1)), Cu (60.0 to 120.1mgkg(-1)) and Ni (31.7 to 83.0mgkg(-1)) but not As, Cd, Pb or Zn; biochar reduced water soluble Cu (60 to 37mgkg(-1)). Combined treatment results were similar to the biochar-only treatment but gave a greater reduction in As and Cd mobility. Biochar has contaminated land remediation potential, but its long-term impact on contaminants and soil biota needs to be assessed.

A comparison of the relative toxicity of bone meal and other P sources used as remedial treatments to the earthworm Eisenia fetida

It has been suggested that sources of P could be used to remediate metal-contaminated soil. The toxicity of four potential P sources, potassium hydrogen phosphate (PHP), triple superphosphate (TSP), rock phosphate (RP) and raw bone meal (RBM) to Eisenia fetida was determined. The concentration of P that is statistically likely to kill 50% of the population (LC50) for PHP, TSP and RBM was determined in OECD acute toxicity tests. 14 day LC50s expressed as bulk P concentration lay in the range 3319–4272 mg kg−1 for PHP, 3107–3590 mg kg−1 for TSP and 1782–2196 mg kg−1 for RBM (ranges present the 95% confidence intervals). For PHP and TSP mortality was significantly impacted by the electrical conductivity of the treated soils. No consistent relationship existed between mortality and electrical conductivity, soil pH and available (Olsen) P across the PHP, TSP and RBM amendment types. In RP toxicity tests mortality was low and it was not possible to determine a LC50 value. Incineration of bone meal at temperatures between 200 and 300 ◦C, pre-washing the bone meal, co-amendment with 5% green waste compost and delaying introduction of earthworms after bone meal amendments by 21 days or more led to significant reductions in the bone meal toxicity. These results are consistent with the toxicity being associated with the release and/or degradation of a soluble organic component present in raw bone meal. Bone meal can be used as an earthworm-friendly remedial amendment in metal-contaminated soils but initial additions may have a negative effect on any earthworms surviving in the contaminated soil before the organic component in the bone meal degrades in the soil.

Effect of earthworm Eisenia fetida and wetland plants on nitrification and denitrification potentials in vertical flow constructed wetland.

The response of nitrification potentials, denitrification potentials, and N removal efficiency to the introduction of earthworms and wetland plants in a vertical flow constructed wetland system was investigated. Addition of earthworms increased nitrification and denitrification potentials of substrate in non-vegetated constructed wetland by 236% and 8%, respectively; it increased nitrification and denitrification potentials in rhizosphere in vegetated constructed wetland (Phragmites austrail, Typha augustifolia and Canna indica), 105% and 5%, 187% and 12%, and 268% and 15% respectively. Denitrification potentials in rhizosphere of three wetland plants were not significantly different, but nitrification potentials in rhizosphere followed the order of C. indica > T. augustifolia > P. australis when addition of earthworms into constructed wetland. Addition of earthworms to the vegetated constructed significantly increased the total number of bacteria and fungi of substrates (P < 0.05). The total number of bacteria was significantly correlated with nitrification potentials (r = 913, P < 0.01) and denitrification potentials (r = 840, P < 0.01), respectively. The N concentration of stems and leaves of C. indica were significantly higher in the constructed wetland with earthworms (P < 0.05). Earthworms had greater impact on nitrification potentials than denitrification potentials. The removal efficiency of N was improved via stimulated nitrification potentials by earthworms and higher N uptake by wetland plants.

Influence of earthworm Eisenia fetida on removal efficiency of N and P in vertical flow constructed wetland.

This study investigates biomass, density, photosynthetic activity, and accumulation of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in three wetland plants (Canna indica, Typha augustifolia, and Phragmites austrail) in response to the introduction of the earthworm Eisenia fetida into a constructed wetland. The removal efficiency of N and P in constructed wetlands were also investigated. Results showed that the photosynthetic rate (P n), transpiration rate (T r), and stomatal conductance (S cond) of C. indica and P. austrail were (p < 0.05) significantly higher when earthworms were present. The addition of E. fetida increased the N uptake value by above-ground of C. indica, T. augustifolia, and P. australis by 185, 216, and 108 %, respectively; and its P uptake value increased by 300, 355, and 211 %, respectively. Earthworms could enhance photosynthetic activity, density, and biomass of wetland plants in constructed wetland, resulting in the higher N and P uptake. The addition of E. fetida into constructed wetland increased the removal efficiency of TN and TP by 10 and 7 %, respectively. The addition of earthworms into vertical flow constructed wetland increased the removal efficiency of TN and TP, which was related to higher photosynthetic activity and N and P uptake. The addition of earthworms into vertical flow constructed wetland and plant harvests could be the significantly sustainable N and P removal strategy

Sensitivity of Eisenia andrei (Annelida, Oligochaeta) to a commercial formulation of abamectin in avoidance tests with artificial substrate and natural soil under tropical conditions

Obtaining ecotoxicological data on pesticides in tropical regions is imperative for performing more realistic risk analysis, and avoidance tests have been proposed as a useful, fast and cost-effective tool. Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate the avoidance behavior of Eisenia andrei to a formulated product, Vertimec(A (R)) 18 EC (a.i abamectin), in tests performed on a reference tropical artificial soil (TAS), to derive ecotoxicological data on tropical conditions, and a natural soil (NS), simulating crop field conditions. In TAS tests an adaptation of the substrate recommended by OECD and ISO protocols was used, with residues of coconut fiber as a source of organic matter. Concentrations of the pesticide on TAS test ranged from 0 to 7 mg abamectin/kg (dry weight-d.w.). In NS tests, earthworms were exposed to samples of soils sprayed in situ with: 0.9 L of Vertimec(A (R)) 18 EC/ha (RD); twice as much this dosage (2RD); and distilled water (Control), respectively, and to 2RD: control dilutions (12.5, 25, 50, 75%). All tests were performed under 25 +/- A 2A degrees C, to simulate tropical conditions, and a 12hL:12hD photoperiod. The organisms avoided contaminated TAS for an EC50,48h = 3.918 mg/kg soil d.w., LOEC = 1.75 mg/kg soil d.w. and NOEC = 0.85 mg/kg soil d.w. No significant avoidance response occurred for any NS test. Abamectin concentrations in NS were rather lower than EC50, 48h and LOEC determined in TAS tests. The results obtained contribute to overcome a lack of ecotoxicological data on pesticides under tropical conditions, but more tests with different soil invertebrates are needed to improve pesticides risk analysis.

Contaminanti emergenti nei suoli: il lombrico Eisenia andrei come modello sperimentale per la valutazione degli effetti biologici del bisfenolo A

Il BPA è un composto aromatico precursore di materiali plastici e additivi chimici, ed è entrato a far parte della categoria dei contaminanti che alterano il sistema endocrino con molteplici effetti negativi sulla salute umana (azione di mimesi estrogenica, alterazioni della funzione tiroidea e dei sistemi riproduttivo, nervoso ed immunitario). Nella fase produttiva industriale si hanno emissioni accidentali di BPA durante il trattamento e la lavorazione dei monomeri plastici. Piccole frazioni di BPA possono essere ingerite dall’uomo poiché la sostanza migra nel tempo dal contenitore alimentare al contenuto (es. bevanda in lattina o contenitore per microonde) soprattutto se esposto ad alte temperature. Anche il contatto con composti acidi o basici, la presenza di elevati livelli di cloruro di sodio o di oli vegetali, è in grado di provocare un incremento del rilascio di BPA dai materiali polimerici. Il BPA viene rilasciato dai biberon in policarbonato, che in molti Paesi sono stati ritirati dal commercio nel 2011, e da bottiglie di acqua riutilizzabili. Infine, la carta termica degli scontrini e delle fotocopie rilasciano BPA. Nell’adulto la tossicità del BPA sembra modesta, tuttavia l'esposizione nel feto e nel neonato può risultare deleteria. Al di là della tossicità, l'aspetto che al momento preoccupa maggiormente è l'effetto che il BPA ha anche a basse dosi sul metabolismo: diversi studi in tutto il mondo correlano questa sostanza all'incidenza di diabete, ipertensione, obesità e problemi cardiaci. L’attenzione per il BPA è piuttosto recente a livello umano, mentre è assai ridotta per la salute dell’ecosistema. Tuttavia è noto che il BPA è presente anche come contaminante dei suoli, e pur essendo stato documentato il suo bioaccumulo negli organismi vegetali, non sono disponibili informazioni precedenti relativi agli effetti del BPA sugli organismi animali del suolo, in linea con il fatto che il suolo è stato una matrice ambientale molto trascurata. Il presente lavoro di tesi quindi si pone come uno studio pilota per valutare la possibile tossicità del BPA su organismi modello che vivono in questa matrice. In questo studio è stato scelto come bioindicatore “sentinella” il lombrico Eisenia andrei, il comune verme rosso, come suggeriscono le linee guida internazionali (OECD, OCSE). I possibili effetti biologici del Bisfenolo A nei lombrichi sono stati indagati sia attraverso endpoint del ciclo vitale (accrescimento, riproduzione e mortalità), sia attraverso una batteria di biomarker (generali e specifici). Data la mancanza di osservazioni precedenti si è scelto un approccio integrato tra i parametri del ciclo vitale, in genere meno sensibili ma ecologicamente più rilevanti, e i biomarker, risposte più sensibili che possono rappresentare segnali precoci di allarme inerenti l’esposizione a contaminanti ambientali o l’effetto di questi ultimi sugli organismi indagati, ma non necessariamente predittivi sulla salute della comunità. Al momento non esistono batterie di biomarker specifiche per questa sostanza, quindi un ulteriore scopo della ricerca è stato quello di evidenziare biomarker utili ad indagare eventuali alterazioni biochimiche e funzionali nei lombrichi in risposta all’esposizione a dosi crescenti di bisfenolo A. Le risposte biologiche indagate sono: - la diminuzione della stabilità delle membrane lisosomiali, che indica una riduzione dello stato di salute generale degli organismi; - l’alterazione dell’attività degli enzimi catalasi e glutatione-S-trasferasi, indice di stress ossidativo o induzione di meccanismi di detossificazione; - la diminuzione dell’attività dell’enzima acetilcolinesterasi, la quale indica neurotossicità; - l’accumulo di lipofuscine o lipidi neutri, che è sintomo rispettivamente di stress ossidativo o alterazioni del metabolismo; - la variazione della malondialdeide, composto intermedio della perossidazione lipidica, indica un stress ossidativo in corso. Sulla base dei dati ottenuti possiamo dire che il BPA, alle concentrazioni ambientali, non costituisce un elemento di rischio ecologico per gli organismi sentinella Eisenia andrei. Alle concentrazioni più elevate (che superano quelle ambientali di almeno 10 volte) si osservano delle alterazioni sui livelli di lipidi neutri e lipofuscine che pur non essendo preoccupanti dal punto di vista ecologico sono indice di vulnerabilità, dato che si tratta di alterazioni del metabolismo in conseguenza delle quali gli animali accumulano residui normalmente degradati a livello lisosomiale. Questo accumulo nei lisosomi delle cellule del tessuto cloragogeno dei vermi, che rivestono il tubo digerente, sembrano indicare una esposizione attraverso la dieta a seguito della ingestione del terreno. E’interessante il fatto che l’accumulo di lipidi è in linea con le caratteristiche obesogene del BPA, ben manifestate nei mammiferi, uomo compreso. Tuttavia non ci sono ancora conoscenze sufficienti per stabilire se questo accumulo nei vermi sia dovuto ad una specifica alterazione degli enzimi di sintesi dei lipidi oppure più genericamente ad un aumento dello stress ossidativo. Molti studi stanno valutando la capacità del BPA di alterare la sintesi e il rilascio di lipidi in cellule umane e di ratto, ma non ci sono ancora studi di questo tipo per gli organismi edafici. E’ auspicabile che questo aspetto venga approfondito, ed eventualmente venga identificato un nuovo biomarker specifico dell’azione del BPA sull’accumulo di lipidi. Un altro aspetto che sarà interessante approfondire è il bioaccumulo: la valutazione del rischio ecotossicologico di una sostanza si basa anche sul potenziale di BCF che può essere pericoloso per il biota (incluso l’uomo) per trasferimento nella catena trofica. Considerando che non esistono ancora studi specifici del bioaccumulo del BPA in organismi del suolo, ed avendo messo in luce che l’assunzione della sostanza è avvenuta (probabilmente per via alimentare) ci si pone l’obiettivo futuro di valutare questo parametro nei lombrichi, in modo da avere un quadro più ampio degli effetti associati a questo interferente endocrino nei suoli.

Valutazione del rischio ecologico dei residui di farmaci nel suolo: analisi sperimentale della tossicità della carbamazepina sul lombrico Eisenia andrei

La carbamazepina fu commercializzata a partire dagli anni Sessanta; è un analgesico anticonvulsivante e specifico per la nevralgia del trigemino ed è uno dei principali farmaci usati nel trattamento dell’epilessia. La sua azione più nota a livello del sistema nervoso è quella di rallentare il recupero dei canali al sodio, sebbene abbia anche effetti metabolici importanti interferendo con il ciclo degli inositoli e con la GSK-3 (glicogeno sintasi-chinasi 3). Tale sostanza è sotto la lente d’ingrandimento sia per le sue caratteristiche chimico-fisiche (vedi la sua alta persistenza in ambiente) sia per la sua alta tossicità per la salute umana. Le sue proprietà terapeutiche spesso sono accompagnate da effetti collaterali sia nei pazienti che assumono direttamente il medicinale, sia negli organismi non-bersaglio che vengono a contatto con i residui ed i metaboliti del farmaco in ambiente. Le principali fonti di contaminazione dell’ambiente sono rappresentate dagli scarichi domestici, urbani, ospedalieri ed industriali e dagli effluenti di impianti di depurazione. Inoltre, l’uso irriguo di acque contenenti residui del farmaco oppure fenomeni di esondazione di corpi idrici contaminati contribuiscono ampiamente alla distribuzione di questo composto nei suoli. La matrice suolo ha avuto relativamente poca attenzione per quanto riguarda gli effetti dell’inquinamento sugli organismi in generale, ed in particolare non vi sono studi sui farmaci. Il presupposto di questo studio dunque è stato quello di mettere a punto una metodologia volta a valutare gli effetti all’esposizione del farmaco carbamazepina su organismi bioindicatori, i lombrichi della specie Eisenia andrei. Il seguente progetto è durato da Maggio 2012 a Febbraio 2013, periodo in cui sono stati effettuati saggi sub cronici per valutare l’effetto di suoli sperimentalmente contaminati con il farmaco sui parametri del ciclo vitale del lombrico (accrescimento, mortalità e riproduzione) e su una serie di biomarker cellulari (neutral red retention assay, accumulo lisosomiale di lipofuscine, accumulo lisosomiale di lipidi neutri insaturi, attività dell’enzima acetilcolinsterasi, attività dell’enzima catalasi, attività dell’ enzima glutatione-S-transferasi e concentrazione di malondialdeide). I risultati ottenuti mostrano che la carbamazepina non ha effetti sui parametri del ciclo vitale. Per quanto riguarda i parametri fisiologici si notano tuttavia dei risultati diversi. L’accumulo lisosomiale di lipofuscine e lipidi neutri indica che il metabolismo dei vermi risulta in qualche modo alterato dall’esposizione alla carbamazepina alle concentrazioni saggiate. Queste alterazioni potrebbero essere spiegate da un effetto di tipo ossidante; infatti i due biomarker oltre a rappresentare un segnale di alterazione metabolica rappresentano anche un indicazione di perossidazione lipidica. Queste osservazioni meritano di essere approfondite studiando il bioaccumulo e la degradazione della carbamazepina nei suoli, che potrebbero essere alla base della diversità di risultati rispetto alla tossicità evidenziata negli organismi acquatici. A fronte della consapevolezza dei rischi potenziali dovuti alla presenza di farmaci nelle acque e nel suolo, molto resta da fare per ampliare le conoscenze su questa tipologia di contaminazione, in particolare nei campi del monitoraggio e del comportamento ambientale, degli studi ecotossicologici e delle procedure e tecnologie idonee a limitare la loro immissione nell’ambiente.

Characterization of histopathological lesions in a biological model for environmental studies: Eisenia andrei Bouché. Preliminar results

Introduction The strong expansion of the world production of plastics caused a severe accumulation of plastic debris in the environment, which makes them one of the most important contaminants, growing as a global environmental problem. Although the production in Europe has been relatively constant in the last 10 years, world plastic production continues to increase, affecting soil biota and their functions. Objectives Thus, in order to evaluate the effects of MP in soil-dwelling organisms, earthworms (Eisenia andrei Bouché), were exposed to standard artificial soil mixed with MPs and the authors documented, using microscopic figures, the pathological lesions found in this biological model. Material and Methods Eight adult earthworms extracted from soils contaminated with different concentrations of MP (mg/kgdw) with sizes ranging between 250-1000 m, were fixed in 10% neutral-buffered formalin and processed for routine histopathological diagnosis. Results and discussion Contrary to what would be expected, MP were not found throughout the GI tube of earthworms but several lesions were found in the individuals extracted from the soils with high MP concentrations, when compared with control group, namely epithelial intestinal atrophy and evidences of inflammatory responses to this stress agent. Conclusion Earthworms have probably avoided the consumption of the biggest MPs. However, evidences point for lesions that were likely caused by the smallest MPs that were likely egested during the depuration phase.

Response of some chickpea ( Cicer arietinum L.) genotypes to Orobanche foetida Poir. parasitism

In Tunisia, broomrape ( Orobanche foetida Poir.) causes major drawbacks especially in faba bean ( Vicia faba L.) Chickpea ( Cicer arietinum L.) suffers little damage compared to faba bean, but with the winter sowing chickpea cultivars, broomrape might become a serious problem for chickpea cultivation. The development of resistant cultivars remains the most efficient way to solve this problem. The behavior of six chickpea genotypes to O. foetida was studied under field natural infestation and artificial inoculation in pots and petri dishes in greenhouse conditions. During the cropping seasons 2010-2011 and 2012-2013 the level of infection was very low. The number of emerged parasites per host plant varied from 0.18 to 0.43 and the incidence from 6.5% to 23%. Among the six tested genotypes, G1, G2, and G4 showed partial resistance to O. foetida with low number and dry weight of emerged parasite and high grain yield compared to the other genotypes, although no significant differences were recorded. In pot experiments, the number and total dry weight of broomrape per plant were lower for G1 and G2 genotypes than the other genotypes. Parasitism does not affect significantly the shoot dry weight and number of pods of these genotypes. The total chlorophyll content was significantly reduced under infestation in all genotypes. In Petri dishes experiments, results showed that percent germination of O. foetida seeds varied from 49% to 65% and does not play a role in the resistance of chickpea genotypes. In contrast, broomrape attachment was lower and slower for the genotypes G1, G2, and G4 than the other genotypes. Resistance in chickpea genotypes was characterized by few parasite attachments on roots and a limited growth of established tubercles. No necrosis of attached tubercles was observed in the different experiments.