Invasive exotic plant indicators for ecosystem restoration: An example from the Everglades restoration program

We have developed a comprehensive ecological indicator for invasive exotic plants, a human-influenced component of the Everglades that could threaten the success of the restoration initiative. Following development of a conceptual ecological model for invasive exotic species, presented as a companion paper in this special issue, we developed criteria to evaluate existing invasive exotic monitoring programs for use in developing invasive exotic performance measures. We then used data from the selected monitoring programs to define specific performance measures, using species presence and abundance as the basis of the indicator for invasive exotic plants. We then developed a series of questions used to evaluate region and/or individual species status with respect to invasion. Finally, we used an expert panel who had answered the questions for invasive exotic plants in the Everglades Lake Okeechobee model to develop a stoplight restoration report card to communicate invasive exotic plant status. The report card system provides a way to effectively evaluate and present indicator data to managers, policy makers, and the public using a uniform format among indicators. Collectively, the model, monitoring assessment, performance measures, and report card enable us to evaluate how invasive plants are impacting the restoration program and how effectively that impact is being managed. Applied through time, our approach also allows us to follow the progress of management actions to control the spread and reduce the impacts of invasive species and can be easily applied and adapted to other large-scale ecosystem projects.

Changes of Soil Biogeochemistry under Native and Exotic Plants Species

Invasive plant species are major threats to the biodiversity and ecosystem stability. The purpose of this study is to understand the impacts of invasive plants on soil nutrient cycling and ecological functions. Soil samples were collected from rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere of both native and exotic plants from three genera, Lantana, Ficus and Schinus, at Tree Tops Park in South Florida, USA. Experimental results showed that the cultivable bacterial population in the soil under Brazilian pepper (invasive Schinus) was approximately ten times greater than all other plants. Also, Brazilian pepper lived under conditions of significantly lower available phosphorus but higher phosphatase activities than other sampled sites. Moreover, the respiration rates and soil macronutrients in rhizosphere soils of exotic plants were significantly higher than those of the natives (Phosphorus, p=0.034; Total Nitrogen, p=0.0067; Total Carbon, p=0.0243). Overall, the soil biogeochemical status under invasive plants was different from those of the natives.

Networks cities and ecological habitats

As the world’s rural populations continue to migrate from farmland to sprawling cities, transport networks form an impenetrable maze within which monocultures of urban form erupt from the spaces in‐between. These urban monocultures are as problematic to human activity in cities as cropping monocultures are to ecosystems in regional landscapes. In China, the speed of urbanisation is exacerbating the production of mono‐functional private and public spaces. Edges are tightly controlled. Barriers and management practices at these boundaries are discouraging the formation of new synergistic relationships, critical in the long‐term stability of ecosystems that host urban habitats. Some urban planners, engineers, urban designers, architects and landscape architects have recognised these shortcomings in contemporary Chinese cities. The ideology of sustainability, while critically debated, is bringing together thinking people in these and other professions under the umbrella of an ecological ethic. This essay aims to apply landscape ecology theory, a conceptual framework used by many professionals involved in land development processes, to a concept being developed by BAU International called Networks Cities: a city with its various land uses arranged in nets of continuity, adjacency, and superposition. It will consider six lesser‐known concepts in relation to creating enhanced human activity along (un)structured edges between proposed nets and suggest new frontiers that might be challenged in an eco‐city. Ecological theory suggests that sustaining biodiversity in regions and landscapes depends on habitat distribution patterns. Flora and fauna biologists have long studied edge habitats and have been confounded by the paradox that maximising the breadth of edges is detrimental to specialist species but favourable to generalist species. Generalist species of plants and animals tolerate frequent change in the landscape, frequenting two or more habitats for their survival. Specialist species are less tolerant of change, having specific habitat requirements during their life cycle. Protecting species richness then may be at odds with increasing mixed habitats or mixed‐use zones that are dynamic places where diverse activities occur. Forman (1995) in his book Land Mosaics however argues that these two objectives of land use management are entirely compatible. He postulates that an edge may be comprised of many small patches, corridors or convoluting boundaries of large patches. Many ecocentrists now consider humans to be just another species inhabiting the ecological environments of our cities. Hence habitat distribution theory may be useful in planning and designing better human habitats in a rapidly urbanising context like China. In less‐constructed environments, boundaries and edges provide important opportunities for the movement of multi‐habitat species into, along and from adjacent land use areas. For instance, invasive plants may escape into a national park from domestic gardens while wildlife may forage on garden plants in adjoining residential areas. It is at these interfaces that human interactions too flow backward and forward between land types. Spray applications of substances by farmers on cropland may disturb neighbouring homeowners while suburban residents may help themselves to farm produce on neighbouring orchards. Edge environments are some of the most dynamic and contested spaces in the landscape. Since most of us require access to at least two or three habitats diurnally, weekly, monthly or seasonally, their proximity to each other becomes critical in our attempts to improve the sustainability of our cities.

Understanding the genetic basis of invasiveness

Invasive species provide excellent study systems to evaluate the ecological and evolutionary processes that contribute to the colonization of novel environments. While the ecological processes that contribute to the successful establishment of invasive plants have been studied in detail, investigation of the evolutionary processes involved in successful invasions has only recently received attention. In particular, studies investigating the genomic and gene expression differences between native and introduced populations of invasive species are just beginning and are required if we are to understand how plants become invasive. In the current issue of Molecular Ecology, Hodgins et al. () tackle this unresolved question, by examining gene expression differences between native and introduced populations of annual ragweed, Ambrosia artemisiifolia. The study identifies a number of potential candidate genes based on gene expression differences that may be responsible for the success of annual ragweed in its introduced range. Furthermore, genes involved in stress response are over-represented in the differentially expressed gene set. Future experiments could use functional studies to test whether changes in gene expression at these candidate genes do in fact underlie changes in growth characteristics and reproductive output observed in this and other invasive species.

Foods of pigeons and doves in fragmented landscapes of subtropical eastern Australia

We report dietary items of pigeons and doves from northern New South Wales and southern Queensland, obtained from opportunistic sampling of the gut contents of dead birds and observing foraging birds. Most records were from fragmented rainforest habitats, which now support abundant invasive fleshy-fruited plants. The fruits and seeds of invasive plants, particularly Camphor Laurel Cinnamomum camphora, formed the dominant food of several of the species sampled, although in some cases these birds appear to destroy most of the ingested seeds in the gizzard, thereby not contributing to weed dispersal. We also describe the first records of White-headed Pigeons Columba leucomela eating flowers and Brown Cuckoo-Doves Macropygia amboinensis eating flower buds. Camphor Laurel, via flowers, green and ripe fruits, and seeds, provided food for White-headed Pigeons in the Goolmangar district of New South Wales throughout the entire year. Seventy percent of the plant species whose fruits and seeds were recovered from the gut had not previously been recorded as food items for those bird species, illustrating how little is known about the diets of pigeons and doves in fragmented Australian landscapes.

Management of plant invasions mediated by frugivore interactions

1. Some of the most damaging invasive plants are dispersed by frugivores and this is an area of emerging importance in weed management. It highlights the need for practical information on how frugivores affect weed population dynamics and spread, how frugivore populations are affected by weeds and what management recommendations are available. 2. Fruit traits influence frugivore choice. Fruit size, the presence of an inedible peel, defensive chemistry, crop size and phenology may all be useful traits for consideration in screening and eradication programmes. By considering the effect of these traits on the probability, quality and quantity of seed dispersal, it may be possible to rank invasive species by their desirability to frugivores. Fruit traits can also be manipulated with biocontrol agents. 3. Functional groups of frugivores can be assembled according to broad species groupings, and further refined according to size, gape size, pre- and post-ingestion processing techniques and movement patterns, to predict dispersal and establishment patterns for plant introductions. 4. Landscape fragmentation can increase frugivore dispersal of invasives, as many invasive plants and dispersers readily use disturbed matrix environments and fragment edges. Dispersal to particular landscape features, such as perches and edges, can be manipulated to function as seed sinks if control measures are concentrated in these areas. 5. Where invasive plants comprise part of the diet of native frugivores, there may be a conservation conflict between control of the invasive and maintaining populations of the native frugivore, especially where other threats such as habitat destruction have reduced populations of native fruit species. 6. Synthesis and applications. Development of functional groups of frugivore-dispersed invasive plants and dispersers will enable us to develop predictions for novel dispersal interactions at both population and community scales. Increasingly sophisticated mechanistic seed dispersal models combined with spatially explicit simulations show much promise for providing weed managers with the information they need to develop strategies for surveying, eradicating and managing plant invasions. Possible conservation conflicts mean that understanding the nature of the invasive plant-frugivore interaction is essential for determining appropriate management.

Lantana (Lantana camara) Seed Bank Dynamics: Seedling Emergence and Seed Survival.

Seed persistence is poorly quantified for invasive plants of subtropical and tropical environments and Lantana camara, one of the world's worst weeds, is no exception. We investigated germination, seedling emergence, and seed survival of two lantana biotypes (Pink and pink-edged red [PER]) in southeastern Queensland, Australia. Controlled experiments were undertaken in 2002 and repeated in 2004, with treatments comprising two differing environmental regimes (irrigated and natural rainfall) and sowing depths (0 and 2 cm). Seed survival and seedling emergence were significantly affected by all factors (time, biotype, environment, sowing depth, and cohort) (P < 0.001). Seed dormancy varied with treatment (environment, sowing depth, biotype, and cohort) (P < 0.001), but declined rapidly after 6 mo. Significant differential responses by the two biotypes to sowing depth and environment were detected for both seed survival and seedling emergence (P < 0.001). Seed mass was consistently lower in the PER biotype at the population level (P < 0.001), but this variation did not adequately explain the differential responses. Moreover, under natural rainfall the magnitude of the biotype effect was unlikely to result in ecologically significant differences. Seed survival after 36 mo under natural rainfall ranged from 6.8 to 21.3%. Best fit regression analysis of the decline in seed survival over time yielded a five-parameter exponential decay model with a lower asymptote approaching −0.38 (% seed survival = [( 55 − (−0.38)) • e (k • t)] + −0.38; R2 = 88.5%; 9 df). Environmental conditions and burial affected the slope parameter or k value significantly (P < 0.01). Seed survival projections from the model were greatest for buried seeds under natural rainfall (11 yr) and least under irrigation (3 yr). Experimental data and model projections suggest that lantana has a persistent seed bank and this should be considered in management programs, particularly those aimed at eradication.

Response of an invasive liana to simulated herbivory: implications for its biological control

Pre-release evaluation of the efficacy of biological control agents is often not possible in the case of many invasive species targeted for biocontrol. In such circumstances simulating herbivory could yield significant insights into plant response to damage, thereby improving the efficiency of agent prioritisation, increasing the chances of regulating the performance of invasive plants through herbivory and minimising potential risks posed by release of multiple herbivores. We adopted this approach to understand the weaknesses herbivores could exploit, to manage the invasive liana, Macfadyena unguis-cati. We simulated herbivory by damaging the leaves, stem, root and tuber of the plant, in isolation and in combination. We also applied these treatments at multiple frequencies. Plant response in terms of biomass allocation showed that at least two severe defoliation treatments were required to diminish this liana's climbing habit and reduce its allocation to belowground tuber reserves. Belowground damage appears to have negligible effect on the plant's biomass production and tuber damage appears to trigger a compensatory response. Plant response to combinations of different types of damage did not differ significantly to that from leaf damage. This suggests that specialist herbivores in the leaf-feeding guild capable of removing over 50% of the leaf tissue may be desirable in the biological control of this invasive species.

Classical Biological Control for the Protection of Natural Ecosystems.

Of the 70 cases of classical biological control for the protection of nature found in our review, there were fewer projects against insect targets (21) than against invasive plants (49), in part, because many insect biological control projects were carried out against agricultural pests, while nearly all projects against plants targeted invasive plants in natural ecosystems. Of 21 insect projects, 81% (17) provided benefits to protection of biodiversity, while 48% (10) protected products harvested from natural systems, and 5% (1) preserved ecosystem services, with many projects contributing to more than one goal. In contrast, of the 49 projects against invasive plants, 98% (48) provided benefits to protection of biodiversity, while 47% (23) protected products, and 25% (12) preserved ecosystem services, again with many projects contributing to several goals. We classified projects into complete control (pest generally no longer important), partial control (control in some areas but not others), and "in progress," for projects in development for which outcomes do not yet exist. For insects, of the 21 projects discussed, 59% (13) achieved complete control of the target pest, 18% (4) provided partial control, and 41% (9) are still in progress. By comparison, of the 49 invasive plant projects considered, 27% (13) achieved complete control, while 33% (16) provided partial control, and 47% (24) are still in progress. For both categories of pests, some projects' success ratings were scored twice when results varied by region. We found approximately twice as many projects directed against invasive plants than insects and that protection of biodiversity was the most frequent benefit of both insect and plant projects. Ecosystem service protection was provided in the fewest cases by either insect or plant biological control agents, but was more likely to be provided by projects directed against invasive plants, likely because of the strong effects plants exert on landscapes. Rates of complete success appeared to be higher for insect than plant targets (59% vs 27%), perhaps because most often herbivores gradually weaken, rather than outright kill, their hosts, which is not the case for natural enemies directed against pest insects. For both insect and plant biological control, nearly half of all projects reviewed were listed as currently in progress, suggesting that the use of biological control for the protection of wildlands is currently very active.

寄生植物在入侵植物防治中的作用——以两种菟丝子为例

生物入侵在全世界广泛发生，目前已经受到全球关注。入侵生物对群落生物多样性和生态系统功能造成严重威胁，导致严重的环境问题和惨重的经济损失。薇甘菊(Mikania micrantha)、五爪金龙(Ipomoea cairica)和南美蟛蜞菊(Wedelia trilobata)是我国华南地区危害最严重的三种外来入侵种，其中以薇甘菊危害最严重，是世界十大有害杂草之一。从20世纪80年代发生以来，薇甘菊已在我国广东农林区域造成严重危害。 机械防治、化学防治和传统的生物防治等治理措施，未能有效治理外来入侵种的危害，直到使用本地种菟丝子(Cuscuta spp)的防治策略。与从原产地引进有害生物天敌的传统生物防治方法不同，本地种由于适应当地气候且与其他物种协同进化，因此，对生态环境潜在的负作用小。从2000年，被发现寄生和抑制薇甘菊之后，菟丝子被认为是防治薇甘菊的有效措施。 为了探讨菟丝子寄生对外来入侵种的治理，及对入侵群落的恢复，本研究在内伶仃岛的林地(入侵种群落被引入菟丝子寄生1-4年)，以及东莞、深圳和海丰的干扰样地(入侵种群落被菟丝子自然寄生5年以上)开展野外调查。在每个样地分别设立外来种入侵亚群和菟丝子治理亚群，通过测定群落结构与组成、土壤性质与养分含量，以及外来种和菟丝子的生长与养分含量等参数之后，本研究得出以下主要结论。 (1) 虽然，被寄生的外来入侵种薇甘菊、五爪金龙和南美蟛蜞菊通过调节资源分配以抵御南方菟丝子(Cuscuta australis)的寄生影响，但是，菟丝子寄生导致外来入侵种生物量降低、繁殖能力下降、养分含量降低。虽然，很多寄生植物都是广谱寄生，能同时寄生多种寄主植物，但是，在本研究的被入侵的群落中，菟丝子主要寄生外来入侵植物。尤其是寄生于南美蟛蜞菊和薇甘菊的菟丝子，生长旺盛、繁殖能力强，表现出高度的适应性。因此，菟丝子对外来入侵种(南美蟛蜞菊和薇甘菊)有寄生偏好性，并对本地种的负面影响小。 (2) 通过吸收寄主的养分，田野菟丝子(Cuscuta campestris)有效地抑制了薇甘菊的危害。由于入侵种的凋落物养分含量高且分解效率高，而且，菟丝子能够促进其它凋落物的分解，并使难以被植物吸收的养分转化成易于被吸收利用的状态。因此，菟丝子与薇甘菊的寄生作用导致土壤养分含量的升高。在薇甘菊被抑制之后，本地种利用丰富的土壤养分资源，提高生长适应性，增强抵抗入侵的能力，甚至抵制薇甘菊的再生。 (3) 菟丝子的寄生作用改变了外来寄主与本地非寄主的竞争平衡，促进本地植物的生长与重建。在外来种被抑制之后，本地种的丰度和群落的物种多样性逐渐增加。本地种如：野葛(Pueraria lobata)和芦苇(Phragmites australis)，取代了入侵群落中的入侵种，成了群落的优势种。而其它原先被薇甘菊抑制的本地草本、藤本和灌木，在引入菟丝子防治之后长势较好。群落稳定性与物种多样性密切相关，被治理群落本地种的增加有利于群落的演替与稳定。 (4) 被干扰的生态系统往往更容易被外来种入侵，而外来入侵种又常导致人工干扰生境的严重退化。在人工干扰样地的菟丝子对薇甘菊的抑制效果与在林地的效果一致，导致被寄生的薇甘菊生长衰退、养分竞争能力下降、入侵危害能力降低。而在薇甘菊被菟丝子治理之后，土壤养分资源增加，入侵群落的物种丰度和生物多样性提高。本 地种的重建与本地群落的恢复密切相关，利于本地被治理群落的稳定，促进被干扰植被的恢复。 菟丝子是一种治理外来入侵种危害的有效措施，适用于破碎的生境和被干扰的生态系统，尤其是在采用目前防治措施难以治理的情况下。本研究为本地种防治外来入侵种提供科学依据，且表明以入侵地的本地种治理外来入侵种有可能成为有效且可持续发展的生物防治策略。

First report of "Cotoneaster pannosus" Franch. ("Rosaceae") in Tarragona Province, and updated distribution area in Spain

Cotoneaster pannosus (Rosaceae), an ornamental shrub native to China, is reported for the first time in Tarragona Province (Catalonia, Spain). Data on demography and accompanying species for the new locality are provided, in addition to a chrorological update at nation level.

The conservation of bees: a global perspective

Bees are major pollinators of Angiosperms and therefore their apparent decline is of importance for humans and biodiversity. We synthesise results of 12 recent reviews to provide a global picture of the threats they face. Habitat loss is the major threat to bee diversity, whilst invasive species, emerging diseases, pesticide use, and climate change also have the potential to impact bee populations. We suggest that future conservation strategies need to prioritise (i) minimising habitat loss, (ii) making agricultural habitats bee-friendly, (iii) training scientists and the public in bee taxonomy and identification, (iv) basic autecological and population genetic studies to underpin conservation strategies, (v) assessing the value of DNA barcoding for bee conservation, (vi) determining the impact of invasive plants, animals, parasites and pathogens, and (vii) integrating this information to understand the potential impact of climate change on current bee diversity.

Le roseau commun (Phragmites Australis) influence-t-il la composition spécifique et le développement larvaire d'amphibiens?

Les plantes envahissantes sont considérées comme l'une des plus grandes menaces sur les espèces, mais leurs impacts sur les amphibiens demeurent peu connus. L’objectif de ce projet est de déterminer l’effet de l’établissement du roseau commun (Phragmites australis) sur la répartition des amphibiens et sur leur développement larvaire. Il est présumé que cette plante s'accapare l'espace et les ressources disponibles en produisant une importante biomasse, qu’elle peut modifier l’hydrologie des marais et la structure des communautés d’amphibiens. J’ai évalué les facteurs influençant la répartition des amphibiens selon les caractéristiques des étangs et du paysage dans 50 sites envahis ou non à divers degrés. Des expériences ont également été menées afin d’étudier les répercussions de trois densités de roseau sur des têtards de la Grenouille des bois (Lithobates sylvaticus) et sur la qualité de son habitat. Mes résultats suggèrent que le roseau à forte densité ralentit le développement larvaire de la grenouille des bois et influence les assemblages phytoplanctoniques. Cependant, il n’y a aucune relation entre la densité de la plante et la survie, la morphologie des têtards et les caractéristiques biotiques et abiotiques de l’eau. Dans notre aire d’étude, le paysage autour des étangs a une plus grande influence sur la répartition des amphibiens que l'établissement du roseau. Toutefois, la probabilité d’assèchement est plus élevée lorsque la plante est établie en grande quantité, ce qui, si l’envahissement s’intensifie, aura un effet néfaste sur la survie des têtards et mettra en péril la persistance des populations.

Influence of plant species and richness on pollutant removal in treatment wetlands

Les marais filtrants artificiels sont des écosystèmes recréés par l’homme dans le but d’optimiser l’épuration des eaux usées. Lors de la sélection d’espèces végétales pour la mise en place de ces marais filtrants, l’utilisation d’une polyculture ainsi que d’espèces indigènes non invasives est de plus en plus recommandée. Néanmoins, la plupart des marais filtrants existants sont des monocultures utilisant des plantes envahissantes, probablement à cause du manque d’évidences scientifiques sur les avantages de la diversité végétale et de la performance des espèces locales. Ainsi, les questions de recherche autour desquelles s’oriente ma thèse sont: Les polycultures présentent-elles un potentiel épuratoire aussi ou plus grand que les monocultures, et une espèce indigène est-elle aussi efficace et performante qu’une espèce exotique envahissante dans des marais filtrants ? Trois expériences ont été conduites afin de répondre à ces questions. J’ai d’abord testé l’influence de la richesse végétale sur l’élimination des polluants en deux dispositifs expérimentaux: 1) comparant deux espèces de plantes émergentes en monoculture ou combinées séquentiellement, et 2) évaluant la performance de quatre espèces flottantes plantées en monoculture par rapport à des associations de deux (avec toutes les combinaisons possibles) et de quatre espèces. Une troisième expérience a été réalisée afin de comparer l’efficacité épuratoire de l’haplotype européen envahissant du roseau commun (Phragmites australis) et de la sous-espèce locale non-invasive (P. australis subsp. americanus). La composition en espèces végétales a produit un effet notable sur la performance des marais filtrants. La comparaison des performances en mono- et en polyculture n’a pas permis de démontrer clairement les avantages de la diversité végétale pour l’élimination des polluants dans les marais filtrants. Toutefois, les marais filtrants plantés avec une combinaison d’espèces étaient aussi efficaces que les monocultures des espèces les plus performantes. La comparaison entre les deux sous-espèces de P. australis indiquent que la sous-espèce indigène pourrait remplacer le roseau exotique envahissant, évitant ainsi les potentiels risques environnementaux sans toutefois compromettre l’efficacité du traitement. Les résultats prometteurs de la sous-espèce indigène de P. australis doivent encore être testés dans des expériences à grande échelle avant d’utiliser largement cette espèce dans les marais filtrants. Nos résultats suggèrent que, dans des conditions où la performance des macrophytes disponibles est inconnue ou ne peut être déterminée, l’utilisation d’une combinaison d’espèces présente les meilleures chances d’accomplir le plus haut niveau possible d’élimination de polluants. De plus, même si la diversité végétale ne présente pas un avantage mesurable en termes d’efficacité épuratoire, celle-ci améliore la résilience des marais filtrants et leur résistance aux stress et aux maladies.