Understanding educational process in leadership development

This thesis is a case study of educational process in the leadership development program of the Australian Defence Force Academy. The intention is to determine the relative emphasis in educational process on the conventional command and managerial compliance (Type A) style and the emergent contingent and creative (Type B) style of leadership. The Type A style is theorised as emphasizing hierarchy and control, whereas the emphasis in a Type B style is on adaptive and entrepreneurial behaviour. This study looks at the learning process in a cultural and structural context rather than focus on curriculum and instructional design. Research in this wider context is intended to enable development processes to successfully bridge a gap between theory and practice, implicit in studies that identify theories 'in-operation' as different from the theories 'espoused' (Argyris 1992, Savage 1996). In terms of espoused and in-use theory, the study seeks to produce a valid and reliable result to the question: what is the relative emphasis on the two leadership styles in the operation of the three educational mechanisms of curriculum, pedagogy (teaching practice) and assessment? The quantitative analysis of results (n = 114) draws attention to both leadership styles in terms of two and three-way relationships of style, cadet or work group and service type. The data shows that both Type A and Type B leadership styles are evident in the general conversation of the organisation. This trend is present as espoused theory in the curriculum of the Defence Academy. However, the data also confirm a clear and strong emphasis towards command and managerial compliance as theory-in-use, particularly by cadets. This emphasis is noticeably evident in the teaching and assessment practice of the Defence Academy. Other research outcomes include the observation that: Contextually, while studies show it is difficult to isolate skills from their cultural and biographical context (Watkins, 1991:15), this study suggests that it is equally difficult to isolate skills development from this context. There is a strong task or instrumental link identified by cadet responses in terms of content and development process at the Defence Academy, in contrast to the wider developmental emphasis in general literature and senior officer interviews. There is a lack of awareness of teaching strategies and development activity consistent with espoused Type B leadership theory and curriculum content. This gap is compounded by the use in the Defence Academy of personnel without teaching expertise or suitable developmental experience. The socialisation of cadets into the military workplace is the primary purpose of training. This purpose appears taken for granted by all concerned - staff, cadets and senior officers. Defence Academy development processes appear to be faced with a dilemma. Arguably, training and learning from experience are limited approaches to development. Training, which involves learning by replication, and learning from experience, which is largely imitative, are both of little use when people are faced with novel and ambiguous situations. This study suggests that in order to support the development of capabilities that go beyond training based competence a learning and development approach is needed. This more expansive approach requires educational planners to consider the cultural and social context that can inadvertently promote the status quo in practice over espoused outcomes.

Beyond mimesis : place, interpretation and response

My study examines the subjective nature of artistic interpretation through the notion of mimesis as process or transformation of material. Influential factors that mediate in the artistic process, such as memory, reflection and an awareness of cultural analogy and metaphor, are examined and related to a specific project in the studio, where the mediation process is further influenced by the materials used to produce the images. My studies of the concept of mimesis have revealed an intermediary realm that exists in the space between empirical reality and its interpretation. Throughout history the process of mimesis has been integral to all forms of the arts. In Plato's time the production of an image that simulated things as they appeared to the eye was considered a desired ideal. Aristotle later introduced developments which extended this concept to include a refiguring or reforming of material derived from the original source, making new connections between existing factors and in this transformation bringing new meanings to a symbolically constituted world. This discussion of the representation of reality, the influence of a dialogue between notions of imitation and the recreation of material continues throughout the exegesis. My study emphasises the interpretive stage of the mimetic process where a consideration of these themes is most relevant and some of the factors that can influence its outcome. It is my opinion that the production of images in response to the particularities of place can be defined in three stages. Firstly, the experience of the place; secondly, the beginning and maturation of the idea or concept; where mimesis takes place, and thirdly, the production of the art work in response. This process is illustrated in Part 2 of the exegesis, where the development of the studio work is documented and linked with the themes discussed in Part 1. The geographic site or place I selected to study is adjacent to Mt. Noorat, a volcanic site in the Western district of Victoria; the surrounding plains are littered with scoria that has been thrown out of the volcano thousands of years ago. Early British, Scottish and Irish settlers to this region used the stone to construct fences reminiscent of their homeland, through this activity they cleared the land and confined and protected their stock. My interests are in factors that include - the material of the stone, notions of enclosure and safety, of boundaries and circumscribed space, and of the cultural reflection that has taken place in this reconstruction of Eurocentric vision. These walls also represent the means by which land was enclosed and property defined, moving from a situation of public access to notions of ownership and the annexation of land for individual gain. Around each point of eruption, the craggy volcanic scoria has been used to create a constructed landscape which both symbolises and mirrors the Anglo - Celtic origins of the people. I have used the legend of Narcissus to illustrate the self-reflective and introspective processes that the settlers invoked in their attempts to come to terms with a strange land. I consider that the story of Narcissus, who fell in love with his own reflection, finds a parellel in the creation of the walls. The re-creation of artifacts from their own cultural environment provided the settlers with a familiar 'face' in an alien world; a reassurance of the familiar in an unfamiliar terrain. Part of this study is an investigation of this notion of landscape as cultural reflection. Geographers have long known that landscape is a cultural construct, an historically evolving ideal manifested in painting, prints and drawings as well as poetry, gardens and parks. One can view these constructions as illustrations or images of meaning which constitute representations of cultural ideals. The neo-classical influence reflected in the paintings of artists who accompanied the early expeditions to Australia demonstrates these themes. The medium of the mirror provides the opportunity to suggest aspects of a cultural reflection and an awareness of identity that has relevance to contemporary Australian culture, therefore, I have allowed it to play a major role throughout this study. Its role in mimesis, firstly, as a reflection in an imitative sense is established, then in its refigurative role, in which the similarities between the original and the reformed rely more on correlative factors than representation. I have used examples from the history of art to illustrate this potential. The formation and development of a narrative involving reflection threads throughout the thesis, both in the visual presentation and in the exegesis. The production of a body of paintings, drawings and sculpture reflect my interpretation and response to the particular site. The correspondences between these works and my theoretical concerns is articulated in the exegesis. The metaphor implied by the use of the walls as agents of enclosure also refers to the capacity of the individual to be confined by notional boundaries and restrictive practices where totalising systems of thought dominate theoretical debate and restrict its freedom. I have used images where gaps in the walls represent the potential implicit to the concept of liminal space, where the spectator moves from one physical space to another and from one stage of development to another. The threshold of this opening in the walls becomes the site where transformation can take place, a metaphor for the mimetic process where the initial experience is translated and transformed into the final product. The paintings, drawings and other works in this series fulfil the role of marks on the surface of the mirror, separating the initial experience from the processes of memory, reflection and speculation. The works draw attention to the materiality that they represent and yet provide the opportunity for new insights and experiences, allowing the subjective nature of artistic activity to combine symbolic elements relating to the site, resulting in the production of meaning.

Inspiration and mimesis in Plato's criticism of poetry

Plato criticizes poetry in several of his dialogues, beginning with Apology, his first work, and ending with Laws, his last. In these dialogues, his criticism of poetry can be divided into two streams: poetry is criticized for either being divinely inspired, or because it is mimetic or imitative of reality. However, of the dialogues which criticize poetry in these ways, it is not until Laws that Plato mentions both inspiration and mimesis together, and then it is only in a few sentences. Furthermore, nowhere in the dialogues does Plato discuss their relationship. This situation has a parallel in the secondary literature. While much work has been done on inspiration or mimesis in Plato’s criticism of poetry, very little work exists which discusses the connection between them. This study examines Plato’s treatment - in the six relevant dialogues - of these two poetic elements, inspiration and mimesis, and shows that a relationship exists between them. Both can be seen to relate to two important Socratic-Platonic concerns: the care of the soul and the welfare of the state. These concerns represent a synthesis of Socratic moral philosophy with Platonic political beliefs. In the ‘inspiration’ dialogues, Ion, Apology, Meno, Phaedrus and Laws, poetic inspiration can affect the Socratic exhortation which considers the care of the individual soul. Further, as we are told in Apology, Crito and Gorgias, it is the good man, the virtuous man - the one who cares for his soul - who also cares for the welfare of the state. Therefore, in its effect on the individual soul, poetic inspiration can also indirectly affect the state. In the ‘mimesis’ dialogues, Republic and Laws, this same exhortation, on the care of the soul, is posed, but it is has now been rendered into a more Platonic form - as either the principle of specialization - the ‘one man, one job’ creed of Republic, which advances the harmony between the three elements of the soul, or as the concord between reason and emotion in Laws. While in Republic, mimesis can damage the tripartite soul's delicate balance, in Laws, mimesis in poetry is used to promote the concord. Further, in both these dialogues, poetic mimesis can affect the welfare of the state. In Republic, Socrates notes that states arc but a product of the individuals of which they are composed Therefore, by affecting the harmony of the individual soul, mimesis can then undermine the harmony of the state, and an imperfect political system, such as a timarchy, an oligarchy, a democracy, or a tyranny, can result. However, in Laws, when it is harnessed by the philosophical lawgivers, mimesis can assist in the concord between the rulers and the ruled, thus serving the welfare of the state. Inspiration and mimesis can thus be seen to be related in their effect on the education of both the individual, in the care of the soul, and the state, in its welfare. Plato's criticism of poetry, therefore, which is centred on these two features, addresses common Platonic concerns: in education, politics, ethics, epistemology and psychology.

Real science and school science : endless wonder versus the drive to explore

Science may be simply defined as a way of finding out about how the world works. It is often viewed as objective and being built on a step-wise procedural base. The question arises as to whether school science needs to be different to cutting-edge (‘real’) science since the outcomes have different purposes, one requiring scientific breakthroughs, the other being imitative and simple. The divergence between these two realities of science impacts on the development of science curricula in that relevance for students, rather than purely imitating real science, steers science curricula.

Development of play profiles : influence of disability on children's play

Occupational therapists value play as a significant occupation in a child’s life and use play both as a means and as an end in itself to support development. This thesis explores the nature of play in children with developmental disabilities, seeking to determine whether there are consistent patterns of play specific to different disability categories. An extensive literature review of play and disability was completed, and Cooper’s (2000) model of play is used to organize the literature findings. This study investigated differences in play behaviour in 50 children diagnosed with Autistic Spectrum Disorder, Down syndrome, Developmental Delay and Physical impairments, aged 4 to 6 years 6 months who attended educational facilities in a regional centre in South East Queensland. Quantitative and qualitative play behaviour was assessed using two measures, Revised Knox Preschool Play Scale (Knox, 2008) and the Child Initiated Pretend Play Assessment (Stagnitti, 2007) with the Australian Developmental Screening Test (Burdon, 1993) used to determine developmental age to eliminate this as a potential confounding variable when statistically analyzing the results.
Cognitive, language and fine motor abilities were found to have a statistically significant impact on play ability rather than the different disability groupings. Children with Down syndrome had significantly more imitative play actions than any other disability grouping. Cooper’s (2000) model was found to be a useful tool to analyze differing play characteristics according to different disability groupings. Modifications to Cooper’s original model of play to more accurately depict play characteristics are proposed.

Estratrégias empresariais no setor avícola: estudo comparativo de duas regiões produtoras

Essa tese analisa dois temas muito relevantes: o processo estratégico enfrentado pelas firmas líderes do segmento produtor de aves durante os anos 80 e a possibilidade de firmas emergentes situadas em regiões que experimentaram intensos processos desenvolvimentistas alcançarem a fronteira tecnológica a partir de 'Janelas de oportunidades" específicas. A idéia desenvolvida foi a de comparar as condições de emergência e desenvolvimento das indústrias de aves da região Sul com aquelas que deram origem à implantação de projetos avícolas na porção sulmatogrossense.

Agrupamentos Sonoros Plenos na Música de Simultaneidades Acústicas e Estruturais

The present article reflects about the concepts of linearity, space and acoustic complexity in the definition of sound grouping as a criticism to the linear concept of phraseology mainly when applied to the music of imitative texture or of complex simultaneities. It takes as examples works by Bach, Josquin des Prez and a fragment of "Lontano" by Ligeti, to study them in two distinct dimensions, simultaneous and interconnected: the acoustic dimension with its entire spectral complexity and the relational dimension which establishes the interaction among the figures in voices and texture layers with some kind of acoustic and structural simultaneity.

Solids rheology for dehydrated food and biological materials

Mechanical properties of food products and biological materials are greatly affected by the drying process and are considered one of the most important quality attributes of dehydrated products. The aim of this work was to review theoretical principles and mathematical modeling, analyzing the measurement techniques and major experimental results that exist in the literature about rheological properties of dehydrated foods and biological materials. Different methods of measuring rheological parameters (fundamental and empiric or imitative) are discussed and major experimental results, as well as the rheological models used in their analysis, published in recent years are presented.

A perspectiva metodológica da resolução de problemas: um estudo sobre enunciados de situações matemáticas na EJA

In this paper we discuss the importance of a methodological perspective of solving problems as a sustaining process of teaching mathematics situated on the perspective of concept formation. Organizing a significant didactic situation for students imposes the need to study the interaction between them and the teacher and between them and their mathematical knowledge, learning environment in which the mere transmission of content gives way to contextualization, to historicizing and handling of topics from intuitive and everyday situations for the student. Thus, we understand mathematics as a fundamental language for the creation of theoretical thinking as a whole. We made use of documental analysis and classroom situations aiming at the use of instructional procedure related to the resolution of problems with the purpose of overcoming some representations about the process of teaching and learning mathematics which is strongly marked by imitative-repetitive algorithmic procedures. Considering mathematics as an investigation discipline, we point out renewal prospects for the curricula of this discipline, which are concrete in the movement of cultural action of the school itself as the cell generating discussion.

The universal language of Freemasonry

Freimaurer verwenden eine spezielle Art von Kommunikation: Zeichensprache, Metaphern, Symbole, Neologismen, Fachsprachen, rituelle 'Reisen' usw. Untersucht werden soll hier der masonische Anspruch, eine 'Universalsprache' zu besitzen. Das Gerüst dieser Dissertation ist ein Vergleich der ganzen Bandbreite der Freimaurerei - Orden für Männer, Frauen, Jugendliche, Farbige, sowie quasi-masonische Freizeitclubs - mit nachahmerischen Fraternitäten, wie z.B. den frühen amerikanischen Versicherungsgesellschaften und deren Kommunikationsmodellen. Die experimentelle Methode der Autorin schließt die Erforschung freimaurerischer und anderer bruderschaftlicher Quellen der letzten drei Jahrhunderte ein, sowie Besuche freimaurerischer Institutionen und Interviews mit Freimaurern. Diese Aktivitäten führten zu dem Ergebnis, daß - während die Symbole allgemein anwendbar sind - die schriftliche Freimaurersprache nicht in allen Ländern uniform ist. Die ethischen Lehren, die aus der symbolischen Freimaurerkommunikation gezogen werden sollen, haben einen internationalen Standard erreicht. So ist die Freimaurersprache seit der offiziellen Gründung der Freimaurerei im Jahre 1717 immer noch lebendig. Die rituelle Phraseologie der frühen nordamerikanischen Gewerkschaften und Versicherungsgesellschaften hingegen ist entweder verloren gegangen oder stellt nur noch pompöse Worthülsen dar, die sich um ein weltliches Thema - wie Versicherungen - ranken.

Effetto di differenti condizioni di formulazione, conservazione e somministrazione sulle caratteristiche reologiche di creme alimentari

Le proprietà reologiche degli alimenti cremosi a fini medici speciali, come quelli per l’alimentazione dei pazienti disfagici, sono influenzate dalla formulazione e dalle tecnologie di produzione. Gli obiettivi di questa tesi, sono stati i seguenti: - individuazione di metodi e parametri reologici empirico-imitativi per la caratterizzazione di campioni di creme alimentari; - studio dell’effetto di differenti quantità di addensante sulle caratteristiche reologiche di creme alimentari; - studio dell’effetto della conservazione in regime di refrigerazione (4° C) o surgelazione (-18°C) sulle caratteristiche reologiche di differenti creme alimentari. Questo al fine di approfondire la conoscenza di tali aspetti per ottimizzare le modalità di produzione e conservazione di differenti creme alimentari destinate all’alimentazione di pazienti disfagici. Dai risultati ottenuti è emerso come tra i metodi ed i parametri empirico-imitativi considerati, quello che sembra essere risultato più idoneo per la determinazione rapida delle caratteristiche di viscosità dei campioni di creme alimentari analizzati è risultato il parametro coesività valutato con test di back extrusion. Per la natura pseudo-plastica dei campioni analizzati, contrariamente a quanto indicato dal produttore, l’utilizzo del viscosimetro vibrazionale non è risultato essere ottimale, per l’instabilità della misura legata alla modifica più o meno importante della viscosità dei sistemi analizzati causata dall’azione delle onde sonore generate dal probe. La caratterizzazione reologica delle creme con differenti contenuti di addensante ha permesso di creare delle cinetiche legate alla modifica delle caratteristiche reologiche empirico-imitative dei sistemi in funzione della quantità di addensate aggiunto. Correlando tali informazioni con il livello di accettazione dei prodotti da parte del paziente disfagico sarà possibile creare degli standard produttivi reologici per la preparazione di prodotti idonei alla sua alimentazione. Le differenti temperature di conservazione dei prodotti, in regime di refrigerazione o congelamento, sembrano non aver influenzato le caratteristiche reologiche delle creme analizzate.

Problem of Tragedy and Tragic Consciousness in Russia at the turn of the 19th Century

This project intertwines philosophical and historico-literary themes, taking as its starting point the concept of tragic consciousness inherent in the epoch of classicism. The research work makes use of ontological categories in order to describe the underlying principles of the image of the world which was created in philosophical and scientific theories of the 17th century as well as in contemporary drama. Using these categories brought Mr. Vilk to the conclusion that the classical picture of the world implied a certain dualism; not the Manichaean division between light and darkness but the discrimination between nature and absolute being, i.e. God. Mr. Vilk begins with an examination of the philosophical essence of French classical theatre of the XVII and XVIII centuries. The history of French classical tragedy can be divided into three periods: from the mid 17th to early 19th centuries when it triumphed all over France and exerted a powerful influence over almost all European countries; followed by the period of its rejection by the Romantics, who declared classicism to be "artificial and rational"; and finally our own century which has taken a more moderate line. Nevertheless, French classical tragedy has never fully recovered its status. Instead, it is ancient tragedy and the works of Shakespeare that are regarded to be the most adequate embodiment of the tragic. Consequently they still provoke a great number of new interpretations ranging from specialised literary criticism to more philosophical rumination. An important feature of classical tragedy is a system of rules and unities which reveals a hidden ontological structure of the world. The ontological picture of the dramatic world can be described in categories worked out by medieval philosophy - being, essence and existence. The first category is to be understood as a tendency toward permanency and stability (within eternity) connected with this or that fragment of dramatic reality. The second implies a certain set of permanent elements that make up the reality. And the third - existence - should be understood as "an act of being", as a realisation of permanently renewed processes of life. All of these categories can be found in every artistic reality but the accents put on one or another and their interrelations create different ontological perspectives. Mr. Vilk plots the movement of thought, expressed in both philosophical and scientific discourses, away from Aristotle's essential forms, and towards a prioritising of existence, and shows how new forms of literature and drama structured the world according to these evolving requirements. At the same time the world created in classical tragedy fully preserves another ontological paradigm - being - as a fundamental permanence. As far as the tragic hero's motivations are concerned this paradigm is revealed in the dedication of his whole self to some cause, and his oath of fidelity, attitudes which shape his behaviour. It may be the idea of the State, or personal honour, or something borrowed from the emotional sphere, passionate love. Mr. Vilk views the conflicting ambivalence of existence and being, duty as responsibility and duty as fidelity, as underlying the main conflict of classical tragedy of the 17th century. Having plotted the movement of the being/existence duality through its manifestations in 17th century tragedy, Mr. Vilk moves to the 18th century, when tragedy took a philosophical turn. A dualistic view of the world became supplanted by the Enlightenment idea of a natural law, rooted in nature. The main point of tragedy now was to reveal that such conflicts as might take place had an anti-rational nature, that they arose as the result of a kind of superstition caused by social reasons. These themes Mr. Vilk now pursues through Russian dramatists of the 18th and early 19th centuries. He begins with Sumarakov, whose philosophical thought has a religious bias. According to Sumarakov, the dualism of the divineness and naturalness of man is on the one hand an eternal paradox, and on the other, a moral challenge for humans to try to unite the two opposites. His early tragedies are not concerned with social evils or the triumph of natural feelings and human reason, but rather the tragic disharmony in the nature of man and the world. Mr Vilk turns next to the work of Kniazhnin. He is particularly keen to rescue his reputation from the judgements of critics who accuse him of being imitative, and in order to do so, analyses in detail the tragedy "Dido", in which Kniazhnin makes an attempt to revive the image of great heroes and city-founders. Aeneas represents the idea of the "being" of Troy, his destiny is the re-establishment of the city (the future Rome). The moral aspect behind this idea is faithfulness, he devotes himself to Gods. Dido is also the creator of a city, endowed with "natural powers" and abilities, but her creation is lacking internal stability grounded in "being". The unity of the two motives is only achieved through Dido's sacrifice of herself and her city to Aeneus. Mr Vilk's next subject is Kheraskov, whose peculiarity lies in the influence of free-mason mysticism on his work. This section deals with one of the most important philosophical assumptions contained in contemporary free-mason literature of the time - the idea of the trinitarian hierarchy inherent in man and the world: body - soul - spirit, and nature - law - grace. Finally, Mr. Vilk assess the work of Ozerov, the last major Russian tragedian. The tragedies which earned him fame, "Oedipus in Athens", "Fingal" and "Dmitri Donskoi", present a compromise between the Enlightenment's emphasis on harmony and ontological tragic conflict. But it is in "Polixene" that a real meeting of the Russian tradition with the age-old history of the genre takes place. The male and female characters of "Polixene" distinctly express the elements of "being" and "existence". Each of the participants of the conflict possesses some dominant characteristic personifying a certain indispensable part of the moral world, a certain "virtue". But their independent efforts are unable to overcome the ontological gap separating them. The end of the tragedy - Polixene's sacrificial self-immolation - paradoxically combines the glorification of each party involved in the conflict, and their condemnation. The final part of Mr. Vilk's research deals with the influence of "Polixene" upon subsequent dramatic art. In this respect Katenin's "Andromacha", inspired by "Polixene", is important to mention. In "Andromacha" a decisive divergence from the principles of the philosophical tragedy of Russian classicism and the ontology of classicism occurs: a new character appears as an independent personality, directed by his private interest. It was Katenin who was to become the intermediary between Pushkin and classical tragedy.

Interface between culturally based preferences and genetic preferences: female mate choice in Poecilia reticulata.

The relative contribution of genetic and socio-cultural factors in the shaping of behavior is of fundamental importance to biologists and social scientists, yet it has proven to be extremely difficult to study in a controlled, experimental fashion. Here I describe experiments that examined the strength of genetic and cultural (imitative) factors in determining female mate choice in the guppy, Poecilia reticulata. Female guppies from the Paria River in Trinidad have a genetic, heritable preference for the amount of orange body color possessed by males. Female guppies will, however, also copy (imitate) the mate choice of other females in that when two males are matched for orange color, an "observer" female will copy the mate choice of another ("model") female. Three treatments were undertaken in which males differed by an average of 12%, 24%, or 40% of the total orange body color. In all cases, observer females viewed a model female prefer the less colorful male. When males differed by 12% or 24%, observer females preferred the less colorful male and thus copied the mate choice of others, despite a strong heritable preference for orange body color in males. When males differed by 40% orange body color, however, observer females preferred the more colorful male and did not copy the mate choice of the other female. In this system, then, imitation can "override" genetic preferences when the difference between orange body color in males is small or moderate, but genetic factors block out imitation effects when the difference in orange body color in males is large. This experiment provides the first attempt to experimentally examine the relative strength of cultural and genetic preferences for a particular trait and suggests that these two factors moderate one another in shaping social behavior.

Will You Be Angry Too? Infants Generalize Emotional Dispositions Across People

Thesis (Master's)--University of Washington, 2016-06

Visual-auditory integration during speech imitation in autism

Children with autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) may have poor audio-visual integration, possibly reflecting dysfunctional 'mirror neuron' systems which have been hypothesised to be at the core of the condition. In the present study, a computer program, utilizing speech synthesizer software and a 'virtual' head (Baldi), delivered speech stimuli for identification in auditory, visual or bimodal conditions. Children with ASD were poorer than controls at recognizing stimuli in the unimodal conditions, but once performance on this measure was controlled for, no group difference was found in the bimodal condition. A group of participants with ASD were also trained to develop their speech-reading ability. Training improved visual accuracy and this also improved the children's ability to utilize visual information in their processing of speech. Overall results were compared to predictions from mathematical models based on integration and non-integration, and were most consistent with the integration model. We conclude that, whilst they are less accurate in recognizing stimuli in the unimodal condition, children with ASD show normal integration of visual and auditory speech stimuli. Given that training in recognition of visual speech was effective, children with ASD may benefit from multi-modal approaches in imitative therapy and language training. (C) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.