Effect of caloric restriction on myenteric neuroplasticity in the rat duodenum during aging

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of caloric restriction (CR) on myenteric neurons in the duodenum of Wistar rats during aging. Thirty rats were divided into three groups: the C group (six-month-old animals that were fed a normal diet from weaning until six months of age), the SR group (18-month-old animals that were fed a normal diet from weaning until 18 months of age) and the CR group (18-month-old animals that were fed a 30% CR diet after six months of age). After 12 months, the animals were euthanized. Whole-mount preparations of the duodenums were either stained with Giemsa or underwent NADPH-diaphorase histochemistry to determine the general myenteric neuron population and the nitrergic neuron subpopulation (NADPH-d +), respectively. The NADPH-d-negative (NADPH-d -) neuron population was estimated based on the difference between the Giemsa-stained and NADPH-d + neurons. The neurons were counted, and the cell body areas were measured. Aging was associated with neuronal loss in the SR group, which was minimized by caloric restriction in the CR group. The density (mm(2)) of the Giemsa-stained neurons was higher in the SR group (79.09 +/- 6.25) than in the CR (92.37 +/- 11.6) and C (111.68 +/- 15.26) groups. The density of the NADPH-d + neurons was higher in the SR group (44.90 +/- 5.88) than in the C (35.75 +/- 1.6) and RC (39.14 +/- 7.02) groups. The density of NADPH-d - neurons was higher in the CR (49.73 +/- 12.08) and C (75.64 +/- 17.05) groups than in the SR group (33.82 +/- 4.5). In the C group, 32% and 68% of the Giemsa-stained myenteric neurons were NADPH-d + or NADPH-d -, respectively. With aging (SR group), the percentage of nitrergic neurons (56.77%) increased, whereas the percentage of NADPH-d - neurons (43.22%) decreased. In the CR group, the change in the percentage of nitrergic (42.37%) and NADPH-d - (57.62%) neurons was lower. As NADPH-d - neurons will be mostly cholinergic neurons, CR appears to reduce the loss of cholinergic neurons during aging. The cell body dimensions (mu m(2)) were not altered by aging or CR. Thus. CR had a protective effect on myenteric neurons during aging. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Morphometric and quantitative evaluation of the NADH-diaphorase positive myenteric neurons of the jejunum of streptozotocin-diabetic rats supplemented with acetyl-L-carnitine

In this study we investigated the effect of the acetyl-L-carnitine (ALC) supplementation on the myenteric neurons of the jejunum of rats made diabetic at the age of 105 days by streptozotocin (35 mg/kg body weight). Four groups were used: non-diabetic (C), non-diabetic supplemented with ALC (CC), diabetic (D), diabetic supplemented with ALC (DC). After 15 weeks of diabetes induction the blood was collected by cardiac puncture to evaluate glycaemia and glycated haemoglobin. Next the animals were killed and the jejunum was collected and subjected to whole-mount preparation to evidence the myenteric neurons through the histochemical technique of the NADH-diaphorase. The neuronal counts were made in 80 microscopic fields, in tissue samples of five animals of each group. The profiles of the cell bodies of 1000 neurons per group were analysed. Diabetes induced a significant increase in the area of the cell body and decrease in the number of NADH-diaphorase positive myoenteric neurons. ALC suplementation to the diabetic group promoted smaller hypertrophic effects and less neuronal loss than in the myoenteric neurons of the diabetic rats, and in addition diminished the body weight decrease and reduced the fasting glycaemia. © 2005 Blackwell Verlag.

Alterations in the duodenum myenteric neurons of Wistar rats after ingesting of 2,4 dichlorophenoxyacetic acid

The 2,4 dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is a systemic herbicide whose effects in animal organic systems have been examined in previous studies, being the neurotoxicity considered the predominant effect. However, the studies that detect the 2,4-D neurotoxicity have merely focused in the central nervous system, and therefore, little is known about the effect of this herbicide in the enteric nervous system. This study aimed to verifying the 2,4-D effects on the myenteric neurons in duodenum of Wistar rats. Ten 60-day-old male Wistar rats (Rattus norvegicus) were divided in two groups: control group (C) that did not receive 2,4-D and experimental group (E) that received 5.0 mg of 2,4-D/kg for 15 days. At the end of experimental period, the animal were euthanized, the duodenum was collected and processed for NADPH-diaphorase histochemical analysis in order to expose the nitrergic myenteric neurons (NADPH-dp). In the light microscopy analysis, the whole-mount preparation obtained from duodenum of each animal were image-captured in 120 and 40 fields, for quantitative and morphometric analyses of myenteric neurons, respectively. The neuronal density was not affected when comparing the two groups, but an increase (p > 0.05) of 8.5% was observed in the cell body area of neurons in the E group. In conclusion, the ingestion of 2,4-D at a dosage of 5.0 mg/kg body weight for 15 days does not change the neuronal density, but promotes the hypertrophy of NADPH-dp myenteric neurons in duodenum of the rats of this study.

Maternal Western Style Diet Increases Susceptibility to Chemically-Induced Mammary Carcinogenesis in Female Rats Offspring

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Kinin-B2 Receptor Activity Determines the Differentiation Fate of Neural Stem Cells

Bradykinin is not only important for inflammation and blood pressure regulation, but also involved in neuromodulation and neuroprotection. Here we describe novel functions for bradykinin and the kinin-B2 receptor (B2BkR) in differentiation of neural stem cells. In the presence of the B2BkR antagonist HOE-140 during rat neurosphere differentiation, neuron-specific beta 3-tubulin and enolase expression was reduced together with an increase in glial protein expression, indicating that bradykinin- induced receptor activity contributes to neurogenesis. In agreement, HOE-140 affected in the same way expression levels of neural markers during neural differentiation of murine P19 and human iPS cells. Kinin-B1 receptor agonists and antagonists did not affect expression levels of neural markers, suggesting that bradykinin-mediated effects are exclusively mediated via B2BkR. Neurogenesis was augmented by bradykinin in the middle and late stages of the differentiation process. Chronic treatment with HOE-140 diminished eNOS and nNOS as well as M1-M4 muscarinic receptor expression and also affected purinergic receptor expression and activity. Neurogenesis, gliogenesis, and neural migration were altered during differentiation of neurospheres isolated from B2BkR knock-out mice. Whole mount in situ hybridization revealed the presence of B2BkR mRNA throughout the nervous system in mouse embryos, and less beta 3-tubulin and more glial proteins were expressed in developing and adult B2BkR knock-out mice brains. As a underlying transcriptional mechanism for neural fate determination, HOE-140 induced up-regulation of Notch1 and Stat3 gene expression. Because pharmacological treatments did not affect cell viability and proliferation, we conclude that bradykinin-induced signaling provides a switch for neural fate determination and specification of neurotransmitter receptor expression.

Effect of caloric restriction on myenteric neuroplasticity in the rat duodenum during aging

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of caloric restriction (CR) on myenteric neurons in the duodenum of Wistar rats during aging. Thirty rats were divided into three groups: the C group (six-month-old animals that were fed a normal diet from weaning until six months of age), the SR group (18-month-old animals that were fed a normal diet from weaning until 18 months of age) and the CR group (18-month-old animals that were fed a 30% CR diet after six months of age). After 12 months, the animals were euthanized. Whole-mount preparations of the duodenums were either stained with Giemsa or underwent NADPH-diaphorase histochemistry to determine the general myenteric neuron population and the nitrergic neuron subpopulation (NADPH-d +), respectively. The NADPH-d-negative (NADPH-d -) neuron population was estimated based on the difference between the Giemsa-stained and NADPH-d + neurons. The neurons were counted, and the cell body areas were measured. Aging was associated with neuronal loss in the SR group, which was minimized by caloric restriction in the CR group. The density (mm(2)) of the Giemsa-stained neurons was higher in the SR group (79.09 +/- 6.25) than in the CR (92.37 +/- 11.6) and C (111.68 +/- 15.26) groups. The density of the NADPH-d + neurons was higher in the SR group (44.90 +/- 5.88) than in the C (35.75 +/- 1.6) and RC (39.14 +/- 7.02) groups. The density of NADPH-d - neurons was higher in the CR (49.73 +/- 12.08) and C (75.64 +/- 17.05) groups than in the SR group (33.82 +/- 4.5). In the C group, 32% and 68% of the Giemsa-stained myenteric neurons were NADPH-d + or NADPH-d -, respectively. With aging (SR group), the percentage of nitrergic neurons (56.77%) increased, whereas the percentage of NADPH-d - neurons (43.22%) decreased. In the CR group, the change in the percentage of nitrergic (42.37%) and NADPH-d - (57.62%) neurons was lower. As NADPH-d - neurons will be mostly cholinergic neurons, CR appears to reduce the loss of cholinergic neurons during aging. The cell body dimensions (mu m(2)) were not altered by aging or CR. Thus. CR had a protective effect on myenteric neurons during aging. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Duplications of BHLHA9 are associated with ectrodactyly and tibia hemimelia inherited in non-Mendelian fashion

Background Split-hand/foot malformation (SHFM)-also known as ectrodactyly-is a congenital disorder characterised by severe malformations of the distal limbs affecting the central rays of hands and/or feet. A distinct entity termed SHFLD presents with SHFM and long bone deficiency. Mouse models suggest that a defect of the central apical ectodermal ridge leads to the phenotype. Although six different loci/mutations (SHFM1-6) have been associated with SHFM, the underlying cause in a large number of cases is still unresolved. Methods High resolution array comparative genomic hybridisation (CGH) was performed in patients with SHFLD to detect copy number changes. Candidate genes were further evaluated for expression and function during limb development by whole mount in situ hybridisation and morpholino knock-down experiments. Results Array CGH showed microduplications on chromosome 17p13.3, a locus previously associated with SHFLD. Detailed analysis of 17 families revealed that this copy number variation serves as a susceptibility factor for a highly variable phenotype with reduced penetrance, particularly in females. Compared to other known causes for SHFLD 17p duplications appear to be the most frequent cause of SHFLD. A similar to 11.8 kb minimal critical region was identified encompassing a single gene, BHLHA9, a putative basic loop helix transcription factor. Whole mount in situ hybridisation showed expression restricted to the limb bud mesenchyme underlying the apical ectodermal ridge in mouse and zebrafish embryos. Knock down of bhlha9 in zebrafish resulted in shortening of the pectoral fins. Conclusions Genomic duplications encompassing BHLHA9 are associated with SHFLD and non-Mendelian inheritance characterised by a high degree of non-penetrance with sex bias. Knock-down of bhlha9 in zebrafish causes severe reduction defects of the pectoral fin, indicating a role for this gene in limb development.

NADPH- Diaphorase positive cardiac neurons in the atria of mice. A morphoquantitative study

Abstract Background The present study was conducted to determine the location, the morphology and distribution of NADPH-diaphorase positive neurons in the cardiac nerve plexus of the atria of mice (ASn). This plexus lies over the muscular layer of the atria, dorsal to the muscle itself, in the connective tissue of the subepicardium. NADPH- diaphorase staining was performed on whole-mount preparations of the atria mice. For descriptive purposes, all data are presented as means ± SEM. Results The majority of the NADPH-diaphorase positive neurons were observed in the ganglia of the plexus. A few single neurons were also observed. The number of NADPH-d positive neurons was 57 ± 4 (ranging from 39 to 79 neurons). The ganglion neurons were located in 3 distinct groups: (1) in the region situated cranial to the pulmonary veins, (2) caudally to the pulmonary veins, and (3) in the atrial groove. The largest group of neurons was located cranially to the pulmonary veins (66.7%). Three morphological types of NADPH-diaphorase neurons could be distinguished on the basis of their shape: unipolar cells, bipolar cells and cells with three processes (multipolar cells). The unipolar neurons predominated (78.9%), whereas the multipolar were encountered less frequently (5,3%). The sizes (area of maximal cell profile) of the neurons ranged from about 90 μm2to about 220 μm2. Morphometrically, the three types of neurons were similar and there were no significant differences in their sizes. The total number of cardiac neurons (obtained by staining the neurons with NADH-diaphorase method) was 530 ± 23. Therefore, the NADPH-diaphorase positive neurons of the heart represent 10% of the number of cardiac neurons stained by NADH. Conclusion The obtained data have shown that the NADPH-d positive neurons in the cardiac plexus of the atria of mice are morphologically different, and therefore, it is possible that the function of the neurons may also be different.

Strategies to identify and further characterize novel and known genes involved in regulation of skeletogenesis

372 osteochondrodysplasias and genetically determined dysostoses were reported in 2007 [Superti-Furga and Unger, 2007]. For 215 of these conditions, an association with one or more genes can be stated, while the molecular changes for the remaining syndromes remain illusive to date. Thus, the present dissertation aims at the identification of novel genes involved in processes regarding cartilage/ bone formation, growth, differentiation and homeostasis, which may serve as candidate genes for the above mentioned conditions. Two different approaches were undertaken. Firstly, a high throughput EST sequencing project from a human fetal cartilage library was performed to identify novel genes in early skeletal development (20th week of gestation until 2nd year of life) that could be investigated as potential candidate genes. 5000 EST sequences were generated and analyzed representing 1573 individual transcripts, corresponding to known (1400) and to novel, yet uncharacterized genes (173). About 7% of the proteins were already described in cartilage/ bone development or homeostasis, showing that the generated library is tissue specific. The remaining profile of this library was compared to previously published libraries from different time points (8th–12th, 18th–20th week and adult human cartilage) that also showed a similar distribution, reflecting the quality of the presented library analyzed. Furthermore, three potential candidate genes (LRRC59, CRELD2, ZNF577) were further investigated and their potential involvement in skeletogenesis was discussed. Secondly, a disease-orientated approach was undertaken to identify downstream targets of LMX1B, the gene causing Nail-Patella syndrome (NPS), and to investigate similar conditions. Like NPS, Genitopatellar syndrome (GPS) is characterized by aplasia or hypoplasia of the patella and renal anomalies. Therefore, six GPS patients were enrolled in a study to investigate the molecular changes responsible for this relatively rare disease. A 3.07 Mb deletion including LMX1B and NR5A1 (SF1) was found in one female patient that showed features of both NPS and GPS and investigations revealed a 46,XY karyotype and ovotestes indicating true hermaphroditism. The microdeletion was not seen in any of the five other patients with GPS features only, but a potential regulatory element between the two genes cannot be ruled out yet. Since Lmx1b is expressed in the dorsal limb bud and in podocytes, proteomic approaches and expression profiling were performed with murine material of the limbs and the kidneys to identify its downstream targets. After 2D-gel electrophoresis with protein extracts from E13.5 fore limb buds and newborn kidneys of Lmx1b wild type and knock-out mice and mass spectrometry analysis, only two proteins, agrin and carbonic anhydrase 2, remained of interest, but further analysis of the two genes did not show a transcriptional down regulation by Lmx1b. The focus was switched to expression profiles and RNA from newborn Lmx1b wild type and knock-out kidneys was compared by microarray analysis. Potential Lmx1b targets were almost impossible to study, because of the early death of Lmx1b deficient mice, when the glomeruli, containing podocytes, are still immature. Because Lmx1b is also expressed during limb development, RNA from wild type and knock-out Lmx1b E11.5 fore limb buds was investigated by microarray, revealing four potential Lmx1b downstream targets: neuropilin 2, single-stranded DNA binding protein 2, peroxisome proliferative activated receptor, gamma, co-activator 1 alpha, and short stature homeobox 2. Whole mount in situ hybridization strengthened a potential down regulation of neuropilin 2 by Lmx1b, but further investigations including in situ hybridization and protein-protein interaction studies will be needed.

Das Globingen-Repertoire von Amphibien und Teleostiern

Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Dissertation wurde die molekulare Evolution von Globinen in Amphibien und Teleostiern untersucht und Analysen zur Genexpression ausgewählter Globine durchgeführt. Die bisher besonders für die neueren Mitglieder der Superfamilie der Globine – Neuroglobin und Cytoglobin – schwerpunktmäßig in Mammaliern erbrachten Daten sollten durch die Analyse in Amphibien und Teleostiern auf ihre generelle Gültigkeit für Vertebraten überprüft werden. Die Analysen zur Genexpression wurden sowohl in silico, basierend auf genomischen wie EST-Daten, als auch experimentell durch qualitative und quantitative RT-PCR-Nachweise durchgeführt. Die mRNA-Lokalisation wurde durch in situ-Hybridisierungen an Gewebeschnitten beziehungsweise durch Whole mount in situ-Hybridisierung an ganzen Embryonen detektiert. In einem ersten Teil der Arbeit wurde das Globin-Repertoire von Xenopus tropicalis umfassend analysiert. Die Expressionsanalyse der gefundenen Globine umfasste nicht nur adulte Tiere, sonder erstmals auch detailliert die Entwicklungsstadien eines Vertebraten. Dabei wurde festgestellt, dass die vorwiegend neuronale Expression des streng konservierten Neuroglobins ein generelles Charakteristikum aller Tetrapoden ist und bereits in der frühembryonalen Entwicklung auftritt. Auch für das als Einzelkopie im Amphibiengenom vertretene Cytoglobin konnte eine strenge Sequenzkonservierung gezeigt werden. Das Expressionsmuster des Amphibien-Cytoglobins stimmte mit dem aus Mammaliern bekannten überein und zeigte konservierte Charakteristika dieses Globins bei Tetrapoden auf. Die Analyse des Xenopus-Genoms ergab zudem, dass Krallenfrösche nicht über Myoglobin verfügen. Genomische Vergleiche syntäner Genregionen ließen auf Rearrangements in diesem Genombereich im Verlauf der Evolution schließen, in deren Folge das Myoglobingen in den Krallenfröschen deletiert wurde. Die Hämoglobine wurden in Xenopus tropicalis erstmals in einem Amphibium umfassend analysiert. Die Gene zeigten demnach eine geclusterte Anordnung: der tropische Krallenfrosch verfügte über je ein funktionelles α- bzw. β-adultes und sieben bzw. vier α- bzw. β-larvale Hämoglobine, die während der Entwicklung bzw. in adulten Tieren charakteristisch exprimiert wurden. Die Analyse der Hämoglobine hinsichtlich ihrer Lage in einem Cluster, ihrer phylogenetischen Relation zueinander und nicht zuletzt ihres Expressionsmusters ließen Rückschlüsse auf ihre Evolution zu. Zusätzlich zu diesen bereits bekannten Globinen konnte im Rahmen dieser Dissertation das Globingen-Repertoirs von Xenopus um zwei weitere, bisher unbekannte Globine erweitert werden. Diese wurden entsprechend ihrer bisher unbekannten Funktion als GlobinX und GlobinY bezeichnet. Während GlobinY bisher ausschließlich in Amphibien nachgewiesen werden konnte, wurde GlobinX zudem in Teleostiern detektiert und repräsentiert damit ein auf Anamnia beschränktes Globin. Die rekombinante Proteinexpression von Neuroglobin, Cytoglobin, GlobinX und GlobinY des tropischen Krallenfrosches zeigte ein hexakoordiniertes Bindungsschema dieser Globine in ihrem Deoxy-Zustand. In einem zweiten Teil dieser Dissertation wurden Neuroglobin und Cytoglobin in Teleostiern untersucht und die Analyse für diese zwei Gene somit über die Tetrapoden hinaus auf den gesamten Stammbaum der Vertebraten ausgedehnt. Dabei wurde deutlich, dass die vorwiegend neuronale Expression des seit 420 Millionen Jahren streng konservierten Neuroglobins ein generelles Merkmal dieses Globins in allen Vertebraten ist. Der in Amphibien und Teleostiern erbrachte und mit Ergebnissen in Mammaliern übereinstimmende Nachweis von Neuroglobin in neuronalen Geweben mit einem hohen Stoffwechsel lässt derzeit eine Funktion dieses Globins im Sauerstoffmetabolimus als wahrscheinlich erscheinen. Ob Neuroglobin dabei als kurzzeitiger Sauerstoffspeicher, O2-Transoprter oder aber in der Detoxifikation reaktiver Sauerstoff- bzw. Stickstoffspezies agiert, bleibt zu untersuchen. Für Cytoglobin konnte eine offenbar alle Teleostier betreffende Genduplikation nachgewiesen werden. Phylogenetische Analysen zeigen die Monophylie der Vertebraten-Cytoglobine. Der Vergleich der paralogen Cytoglobine der Teleostier mit dem syntänen Genombereich des humanen Cytoglobins zeigte die wahrscheinliche Entstehung der Fisch-Cytoglobine durch eine Genomduplikation in einem Vorfahren aller Teleostier vor etwa 300-450 Millionen Jahren. Die paralogen Cytoglobine zeigten in Danio rerio und Tetraodon nigroviridis differierende, charakteristische Expressionsmuster, die mit der Theorie der Subfunktionalisierung von Genen in Folge eines Duplikationsereignisses kompatibel sind. Die Analyse zeigte, dass Cygb-1 prädominant in Gehirn und Herz exprimiert wurde, Cygb-2 hingegen bevorzugt in Gehirn und Auge. Dies bestätigte indirekt die Hypothese, nach der das Cytoglobin der Mammalier zwei unterschiedliche Funktionen in differenten Geweben wahrnimmt. Die rekombinante Expression von Cygb-1 des Zebrabärblings zeigte zudem, das auch dieses Globin in seiner Deoxy-Form über ein hexakoordiniertes Bindungsschema verfügt.

Der Einfluss assistierter Reproduktionstechniken auf die epigenetische Reprogrammierung in der fruehen Embryogenese und Gametogenese im Mausmodell

Seit der Geburt von Louise J. Brown (1978) als erstem künstlich erzeugtem Kind hat sich die Nachfrage nach assistierten Reproduktionstechniken (ART) stark erhöht. Der Anteil der nach In-vitro-Fertilisation (IVF) oder Intrazytoplasmatischer Spermieninjektion (ICSI) geborenen Kinder macht mittlerweile abhängig vom betrachteten Industrieland zwischen 1-4% an der Gesamtgeburtenzahl aus. In zahlreichen Studien korreliert eine erhöhte Prävalenz für seltene Imprinting-Erkrankungen, wie z.B. Beckwith-Wiedemann oder Angelman-Syndrom, mit der Geburt nach assistierten Reproduktionstechniken. Es ist bekannt, dass die medizinischen Interventionen zur Behandlung von Sub- und Infertilität in sehr sensitive Phasen der epigenetischen Reprogrammierung des Embryos und der Keimzellen eingreifen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde untersucht, ob die ovarielle Stimulation einen Einfluss auf die epigenetische Integrität von geprägten Genen in murinen Präimplantationsembryonen hat. Die in diesem Zusammenhang entwickelte digitale Bisulfitpyrosequenzierung gewährleistet die Analyse der DNA-Methylierung auf Einzelallelebene durch eine adäquate Verdünnung der Probe im Vorfeld der PCR. Die ovarielle Induktion führte zu einem erhöhten Rate an Epimutationen des paternalen H19-Allels, sowie des maternalen Snrpn-Allels. Zudem konnte festgestellt werden, dass die Expression von drei potentiellen Reprogrammierungsgenen (Apex1, Polb, Mbd3) in Embryonen aus hormonell stimulierten Muttertieren dereguliert ist. Whole-Mount Immunfluoreszenzfärbungen für APEX1 korrelierten dessen differentielle Genexpression mit dem Proteinlevel. Anzeichen früher apoptotischer Vorgänge äußerten sich in Embryonen aus hormonell induzierten Muttertieren in der hohen Rate an Embryonen, die keines der drei Transkripte exprimierten oder weniger APEX1-positive Blastomeren aufwiesen.In einer weiteren Fragestellung wurde untersucht, ob die Kryokonservierung muriner Spermatozoen den epigenetischen Status geprägter Gene in den Keimzellen beeinflusst. Die Analyse von F1-Zweizellembryonen, die durch IVF mit den jeweiligen Spermatozoen eines Männchens generiert wurden, diente der Aufklärung möglicher paternaler Transmissionen. Insgesamt konnten keine signifikanten Auswirkungen der Kryokonservierung auf den epigenetischen Status in Spermatozoen und F1-Embryonen ermittelt werden.

Comparison of the gene expression profiles from normal and Fgfrl1 deficient mouse kidneys reveals downstream targets of Fgfrl1 signaling

Fgfrl1 (fibroblast growth factor receptor-like 1) is a transmembrane receptor that is essential for the development of the metanephric kidney. It is expressed in all nascent nephrogenic structures and in the ureteric bud. Fgfrl1 null mice fail to develop the metanephric kidneys. Mutant kidney rudiments show a dramatic reduction of ureteric branching and a lack of mesenchymal-to-epithelial transition. Here, we compared the expression profiles of wildtype and Fgfrl1 mutant kidneys to identify genes that act downstream of Fgfrl1 signaling during the early steps of nephron formation. We detected 56 differentially expressed transcripts with 2-fold or greater reduction, among them many genes involved in Fgf, Wnt, Bmp, Notch, and Six/Eya/Dach signaling. We validated the microarray data by qPCR and whole-mount in situ hybridization and showed the expression pattern of candidate genes in normal kidneys. Some of these genes might play an important role during early nephron formation. Our study should help to define the minimal set of genes that is required to form a functional nephron.

Decreased hypoxia-induced neovascularization in angiopoietin-2 heterozygous knockout mouse through reduced MMP activity

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Proliferative diabetic retinopathy is characterized by the formation of retinal neovascularization. Angiopoietin-2 (Ang-2) and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) play a critical role in angiogenesis. However, the precise location and function of Ang-2 during formation of retinal neovascularizations driven by hypoxia in relation to MMP activity have not been elucidated. In this study, we investigated the response of Ang-2 heterozygous knockout retinas (Ang2(+/-) mouse) to hypoxia and its link to MMP activity in an oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR) model. METHODS: Pre-retinal neovascularizations were quantitated in vertical sections. Intra-retinal angiogenesis was assessed by whole mount immunofluorescence staining of retinas. MMP activity was examined in retinal protein lysate and whole mount retinal in situ zymography. RESULTS: Ang2(+/-) retinas subjected to the OIR model showed 33% reduced neovascularization and 271% increased avascular zones at postnatal day 17. In the OIR model, Ang-2 was modestly expressed in pre-retinal neovascularizations and venules, but strongly in arterioles and capillary sprouts. MMPs were activated in close association to where Ang-2 is expressed. MMP activity was substantially decreased in Ang2(+/-) retinas. CONCLUSIONS: Our present data suggest the spatially concomitant expression of Ang2 and MMPs, and that Ang2 modulates hypoxia-induced neovascularization by regulating MMP activity.

Myc regulates embryonic vascular permeability and remodeling

Previous work has shown that c-Myc is required for adequate vasculogenesis and angiogenesis. To further investigate the contribution of Myc to these processes, we conditionally expressed c-Myc in embryonic endothelial cells using a tetracycline-regulated system. Endothelial Myc overexpression resulted in severe defects in the embryonic vascular system. Myc-expressing embryos undergo widespread edema formation and multiple hemorrhagic lesions. They die between embryonic days 14.5 and 17.5. The changes in vascular permeability are not caused by deficiencies in vascular basement membrane composition or pericyte coverage. However, the overall turnover of endothelial cells is elevated as is revealed by increased levels of both proliferation and apoptosis. Whole-mount immunohistochemical analysis revealed alterations in the architecture of capillary networks. The dermal vasculature of Myc-expressing embryos is characterized by a reduction in vessel branching, which occurs despite upregulation of the proangiogenic factors vascular endothelial growth factor-A and angiopoietin-2. Thus, the net outcome of an excess of vascular endothelial growth factor-A and angiopoietin-2 in the face of an elevated cellular turnover appears to be a defect in vascular integrity.

Evidence that the novel receptor FGFRL1 signals indirectly via FGFR1

Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) receptor-like protein 1 (FGFRL1) is a recently discovered member of the FGF receptor (FGFR) family. Similar to the classical FGFRs, it contains three extracellular immunoglobulin-like domains and interacts with FGF ligands. However, in contrast to the classical receptors, it does not contain any intracellular tyrosine kinase domain and consequently cannot signal by transphosphorylation. In mouse kidneys, FgfrL1 is expressed primarily at embryonic stages E14-E15 in regions where nascent nephrons develop. In this study, we used whole-mount in situ hybridization to show the spatial pattern of five different Fgfrs in the developing mouse kidney. We compared the expression pattern of FgfrL1 with that of other Fgfrs. The expression pattern of FgfrL1 closely resembled that of Fgfr1, but clearly differed from that of Fgfr2‑Fgfr4. It is therefore conceivable that FgfrL1 signals indirectly via Fgfr1. The mechanisms by which FgfrL1 affects the activity of Fgfr1 remain to be elucidated.