Status of waterfowl in 1934 /

Contributon from Bureau of Biological Survey.

Migratory waterfowl shortage. Hearings before the Special committee on conservation of wild life resources, United States Senate, on the protection and preservation of migratory waterfowl in the United States. April 4, 5, and 6, 1932. Printed for the use of the Special committee on conservation of wild life resources.

Mode of access: Internet.

Waterfowl Management Area Regulations

Mode of access: Internet.

The Effects of Organic Matter Amendments and Migratory Waterfowl on Greenhouse Gas and Nutrient Dynamics in Managed Coastal Plain Wetlands

Wetland ecosystems provide many valuable ecosystem services, including carbon (C) storage and improvement of water quality. Yet, restored and managed wetlands are not frequently evaluated for their capacity to function in order to deliver on these values. Specific restoration or management practices designed to meet one set of criteria may yield unrecognized biogeochemical costs or co-benefits. The goal of this dissertation is to improve scientific understanding of how wetland restoration practices and waterfowl habitat management affect critical wetland biogeochemical processes related to greenhouse gas emissions and nutrient cycling. I met this goal through field and laboratory research experiments in which I tested for relationships between management factors and the biogeochemical responses of wetland soil, water, plants and trace gas emissions. Specifically, I quantified: (1) the effect of organic matter amendments on the carbon balance of a restored wetland; (2) the effectiveness of two static chamber designs in measuring methane (CH4) emissions from wetlands; (3) the impact of waterfowl herbivory on the oxygen-sensitive processes of methane emission and coupled nitrification-denitrification; and (4) nitrogen (N) exports caused by prescribed draw down of a waterfowl impoundment.

The potency of CH4 emissions from wetlands raises the concern that widespread restoration and/or creation of freshwater wetlands may present a radiative forcing hazard. Yet data on greenhouse gas emissions from restored wetlands are sparse and there has been little investigation into the greenhouse gas effects of amending wetland soils with organic matter, a recent practice used to improve function of mitigation wetlands in the Eastern United States. I measured trace gas emissions across an organic matter gradient at a restored wetland in the coastal plain of Virginia to test the hypothesis that added C substrate would increase the emission of CH4. I found soils heavily loaded with organic matter emitted significantly more carbon dioxide than those that have received little or no organic matter. CH4 emissions from the wetland were low compared to reference wetlands and contrary to my hypothesis, showed no relationship with the loading rate of added organic matter or total soil C. The addition of moderate amounts of organic matter (< 11.2 kg m-2) to the wetland did not greatly increase greenhouse gas emissions, while the addition of high amounts produced additional carbon dioxide, but not CH4.

I found that the static chambers I used for sampling CH4 in wetlands were highly sensitive to soil disturbance. Temporary compression around chambers during sampling inflated the initial chamber CH4 headspace concentration and/or lead to generation of nonlinear, unreliable flux estimates that had to be discarded. I tested an often-used rubber-gasket sealed static chamber against a water-filled-gutter seal chamber I designed that could be set up and sampled from a distance of 2 m with a remote rod sampling system to reduce soil disturbance. Compared to the conventional design, the remotely-sampled static chambers reduced the chance of detecting inflated initial CH4 concentrations from 66 to 6%, and nearly doubled the proportion of robust linear regressions from 45 to 86%. The new system I developed allows for more accurate and reliable CH4 sampling without costly boardwalk construction.

I explored the relationship between CH4 emissions and aquatic herbivores, which are recognized for imposing top-down control on the structure of wetland ecosystems. The biogeochemical consequences of herbivore-driven disruption of plant growth, and in turn, mediated oxygen transport into wetland sediments, were not previously known. Two growing seasons of herbivore exclusion experiments in a major waterfowl overwintering wetland in the Southeastern U.S. demonstrate that waterfowl herbivory had a strong impact on the oxygen-sensitive processes of CH4 emission and nitrification. Denudation by herbivorous birds increased cumulative CH4 flux by 233% (a mean of 63 g CH4 m-2 y-1) and inhibited coupled nitrification-denitrification, as indicated by nitrate availability and emissions of nitrous oxide. The recognition that large populations of aquatic herbivores may influence the capacity for wetlands to emit greenhouse gases and cycle nitrogen is particularly salient in the context of climate change and nutrient pollution mitigation goals. For example, our results suggest that annual emissions of 23 Gg of CH4 y-1 from ~55,000 ha of publicly owned waterfowl impoundments in the Southeastern U.S. could be tripled by overgrazing.

Hydrologically controlled moist-soil impoundment wetlands provide critical habitat for high densities of migratory bird populations, thus their potential to export nitrogen (N) to downstream waters may contribute to the eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems. To investigate the relative importance of N export from these built and managed habitats, I conducted a field study at an impoundment wetland that drains into hypereutrophic Lake Mattamuskeet. I found that prescribed hydrologic drawdowns of the impoundment exported roughly the same amount of N (14 to 22 kg ha-1) as adjacent fertilized agricultural fields (16 to 31 kg ha-1), and contributed approximately one-fifth of total N load (~45 Mg N y-1) to Lake Mattamuskeet. Ironically, the prescribed drawdown regime, designed to maximize waterfowl production in impoundments, may be exacerbating the degradation of habitat quality in the downstream lake. Few studies of wetland N dynamics have targeted impoundments managed to provide wildlife habitat, but a similar phenomenon may occur in some of the 36,000 ha of similarly-managed moist-soil impoundments on National Wildlife Refuges in the southeastern U.S. I suggest early drawdown as a potential method to mitigate impoundment N pollution and estimate it could reduce N export from our study impoundment by more than 70%.

In this dissertation research I found direct relationships between wetland restoration and impoundment management practices, and biogeochemical responses of greenhouse gas emission and nutrient cycling. Elevated soil C at a restored wetland increased CO2 losses even ten years after the organic matter was originally added and intensive herbivory impact on emergent aquatic vegetation resulted in a ~230% increase in CH4 emissions and impaired N cycling and removal. These findings have important implications for the basic understanding of the biogeochemical functioning of wetlands and practical importance for wetland restoration and impoundment management in the face of pressure to mitigate the environmental challenges of global warming and aquatic eutrophication.

Proximate cues to phases of movement in a highly dispersive waterfowl, anas superciliosa

BACKGROUND: Waterfowl can exploit distant ephemeral wetlands in arid environments and provide valuable insights into the response of birds to rapid environmental change, and behavioural flexibility of avian movements. Currently much of our understanding of behavioural flexibility of avian movement comes from studies of migration in seasonally predictable biomes in the northern hemisphere. We used GPS transmitters to track 20 Pacific black duck (Anas superciliosa) in arid central Australia. We exploited La Niña conditions that brought extensive flooding, so allowing a rare opportunity to investigate how weather and other environmental factors predict initiation of long distance movement toward freshly flooded habitats. We employed behavioural change point analysis to identify three phases of movement: sedentary, exploratory and long distance oriented movement. We then used random forest models to determine the ability of meteorological and remote sensed landscape variables to predict initiation of these phases. RESULTS: We found that initiation of exploratory movement phases is influenced by fluctuations in local weather conditions and accumulated rainfall in the landscape. Initiation of long distance movement phases was found to be highly individualistic with minor influence from local weather conditions. CONCLUSIONS: Our study reveals how individuals utilise local conditions to respond to changes in resource distribution at broad scales. Our findings suggest that individual movement decisions of dispersive birds are informed by the integration of multiple weather cues operating at different temporal and spatial scales.

SCDNR WMA REGULAR SEASON WATERFOWL HARVEST SUMMARY 2011-2012

The South Carolina Department of Natural Resources manages Waterfowl Management Areas to maintain populations of migratory waterfowl. This report provides a summary of the species, number of hunters, ducks per hunter, shots fired, cripples lost, and percentage lost of waterfowl hunted in the management areas.

The anatomy of the bill tip of kiwi and associated somatosensory regions of the brain : comparisons with shorebirds

Three families of probe-foraging birds, Scolopacidae (sandpipers and snipes), Apterygidae (kiwi), and Threskiornithidae (ibises, including spoonbills) have independently evolved long, narrow bills containing clusters of vibration-sensitive mechanoreceptors (Herbst corpuscles) within pits in the bill-tip. These ‘bill-tip organs’ allow birds to detect buried or submerged prey via substrate-borne vibrations and/or interstitial pressure gradients. Shorebirds, kiwi and ibises are only distantly related, with the phylogenetic divide between kiwi and the other two taxa being particularly deep. We compared the bill-tip structure and associated somatosensory regions in the brains of kiwi and shorebirds to understand the degree of convergence of these systems between the two taxa. For comparison, we also included data from other taxa including waterfowl (Anatidae) and parrots (Psittaculidae and Cacatuidae), non-apterygid ratites, and other probe-foraging and non probe-foraging birds including non-scolopacid shorebirds (Charadriidae, Haematopodidae, Recurvirostridae and Sternidae). We show that the bill-tip organ structure was broadly similar between the Apterygidae and Scolopacidae, however some inter-specific variation was found in the number, shape and orientation of sensory pits between the two groups. Kiwi, scolopacid shorebirds, waterfowl and parrots all shared hypertrophy or near-hypertrophy of the principal sensory trigeminal nucleus. Hypertrophy of the nucleus basorostralis, however, occurred only in waterfowl, kiwi, three of the scolopacid species examined and a species of oystercatcher (Charadriiformes: Haematopodidae). Hypertrophy of the principal sensory trigeminal nucleus in kiwi, Scolopacidae, and other tactile specialists appears to have co-evolved alongside bill-tip specializations, whereas hypertrophy of nucleus basorostralis may be influenced to a greater extent by other sensory inputs. We suggest that similarities between kiwi and scolopacid bill-tip organs and associated somatosensory brain regions are likely a result of similar ecological selective pressures, with inter-specific variations reflecting finer-scale niche differentiation.

Climate forcing on avian life history

In the 21st century, human-induced global climate change has been highlighted as one of the most serious threats to ecosystems worldwide. According to global climate scenarios, the mean temperature in Finland is expected to increase by 1.8 4.0°C by the end of the century. The regional and seasonal change in temperature has predicted to be spatially and temporally asymmetric, where the High-Arctic and Antarctic areas and winter and spring seasons have been projected to face the highest temperature increase. To understand how species respond to the ongoing climate change, we need to study how climate affects species in different phases of their life cycle. The impact of climate on breeding and migration of eight large-sized bird species was studied in this thesis, taking food availability into account. The findings show that climatic variables have considerable impact on the life-history traits of large-sized birds in northern Europe. The magnitude of climatic effects on migration and breeding was comparable with that of food supply, conventionally regarded as the main factor affecting these life-history traits. Based on the results of this thesis and the current climate scenarios, the following not mutually exclusive responses are possible in the near future. Firstly, asymmetric climate change may result in a mistiming of breeding because mild winters and early spring may lead to earlier breeding, whereas offspring are hatching into colder conditions which elevate mortality. Secondly, climate induced responses can differ between species with different breeding tactics (income vs. capital breeding), so that especially capital breeders can gain advantage on global warming as they can sustain higher energy resources. Thirdly, increasing precipitation has the potential to reduce the breeding success of many species by exposing nestlings to more severe post-hatching conditions and hampering the hunting conditions of parents. Fourthly, decreasing ice cover and earlier ice-break in the Baltic Sea will allow earlier spring migration in waterfowl. In eiders, this can potentially lead to more productive breeding. Fifthly, warming temperatures can favour parents preparing for breeding and increase nestling survival. Lastly, the climate-induced phenological changes in life history events will likely continue. Furthermore, interactions between climate and food resources can be complex and interact with each other. Eiders provide an illustrative example of this complexity, being caught in the crossfire between more benign ice conditions and lower salinity negatively affecting their prime food resource. The general conclusion is that climate is controlling not only the phenology of the species but also their reproductive output, thus affecting the entire population dynamics.

Cooperation and conflict in conspecific brood parasitism : an alternative reproductive tactic

Interactions among individuals give rise to both cooperation and conflict. Individuals will behave selfishly or altruistically depending on which gives the higher payoff. The reproductive strategies of many animals are flexible and several alternative tactics may be present from which the most suitable one is applied. Generally, alternative reproductive tactics may be defined as a response to competition from individuals of the same sex. These alternative reproductive tactics are means by which individuals may fine-tune their fitness to the reigning circumstances and which are shaped by the environment individuals are occupying as well as by the behaviour of other individuals sharing the environment. By employing such alternative ways of achieving reproductive output, individuals may alleviate competition from others. Conspecific brood parasitism (CBP) is an alternative reproductive strategy found in several egg laying animal groups, and it is especially common among waterfowl. Within this alternative reproductive strategy, four reproductive options can be identified. These four options represent a continuum from low reproductive effort coupled with low fitness returns, to high reproductive effort and consequently high benefits. It may not be evident how individuals should allocate reproductive effort between eggs laid in their own nest vs. in nests of others, however. Limited fecundity will constrain the number of eggs donated by a parasite, but also the tendency for hosts to accept parasitic eggs may affect the allocation decision. Furthermore, kinship, individual quality and the costs of breeding may play a role in complicating the allocation decision. In this thesis, I view the seemingly paradoxical effects of kinship on conflict resolution in the context of alternative reproductive tactics, examining the resulting features of cooperation and conflict. Conspecific brood parasitism sets the stage for investigating these questions. By using both empirical and theoretical approaches, I examine the nature of CBP in a brood parasitic duck, the Barrow's goldeneye (Bucephala islandica). The theoretical chapter of this thesis gives rise to four main conclusions. Firstly, variation in individual quality plays a central role in shaping breeding strategies. Secondly, kinship plays a central role in the evolution of CBP. Thirdly, egg recognition ability may affect the prevalence of parasitism. If egg recognition is perfect, higher relatedness between host and parasite facilitates CBP. Finally, I show that the relative costs of egg laying and post-laying care play a so far underestimated role in determining the prevalence of parasitism. The costs of breeding may outweigh possible inclusive fitness benefits accrued from receiving eggs from relatives. Several of the patterns brought out by the theoretical work are then confirmed empirically in the following chapters. Findings include confirmation of the central role of relatedness in determining the extent of parasitism as well as inducing a counterintuitive host clutch reduction. Furthermore, I demonstrate a cost of CBP inflicted on hosts, as well as results suggesting that host age reflects individual quality, affecting the ability to overcome costs inflicted by CBP. In summary, I demonstrate both theoretically and empirically the presence of cooperation and conflict in the interactions between conspecific parasites and their hosts. The field of CBP research has traditionally been divided, but the first steps have now been taken toward the acceptance of the opposite side of the divide. Especially the theoretical findings of chapter 1 offer the possibility to view seemingly contrasting results of various studies within the same framework, and may direct future research toward more general features underlying differences in the patterns of CBP between populations or species.

Monograph on Essentials in Limnology and GIS

Aquatic ecosystems are dynamic and depend on various interdependent and inter-related factors that are vital for their existence and in maintaining the ecological balance. Various anthropogenic activities have impaired ecological conditions in many ecosystems. This monograph gives an account of the essentials in limnology, which helps in understanding the nature and extent of the problems and also provides an insight into the use of Geographic Information System as an effective tool for resource inventorying, monitoring and management. The monograph consists of four chapters, and the first one gives an overall view of the inland aquatic bodies as complex ecological systems. It begins with the formation of lakes, and the various physical, chemical and biological factors that determine these ecosystems. The physical factors covered include morphometry, density, light, etc., and the lake chemistry determined by various anions and cations are discussed in detail. The biological parameters include phytoplankton, zooplankton, waterfowl and fish communities that play an important role in freshwater biodiversity, and are presented with diagrams for easy understanding. The monograph gives an in depth view of the lake zones, productivity, and seasonal changes in the lake community with various energy relationships. The concept of food chain and food web in an aquatic ecosystem is also presented with illustrations. Lastly, the various anthropogenic activities that have deteriorated the quality of water are listed with the restoration strategies.

Conceptual model of salt marsh management on Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge, Florida: final report

Diking and holding water on salt marshes ("impounding" the marsh) is a management technique used on Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge (MINWR) and elsewhere in the Southeast to: a) prevent the reproduction of saltmarsh mosquitos, and b) attract wintertering waterfowl and other marsh, shore, and wading birds. Because of concern that diking and holding water may interfere with the production of estuarine fish and shellfish, impoundment managers are being asked to consider altering management protocol to reduce or eliminate any such negative influence. How to change protocol and preserve effective mosquito control and wildlife management is a decision of great complexity because: a) the relationships between estuarine organisms and the fringing salt marshes at the land-water interface are complex, and b) impounded marshes are currently good habitat for a variety of species of fish and wildlife. Most data collection by scientists and managers in the area has not been focused on this particular problem. Furthermore, collection of needed data may not be possible before changes in protocol are demanded. Therefore, the purpose of this document is two-fold: 1) to suggest management alternatives, given existing information, and 2) to help identify research needs that have a high probability of leading to improved simultaneous management of mosquitos, waterfowl, other wildlife, freshwater fish, and estuarine fish and shellfish on the marshland of the Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge. (92 page document)

Monitoring hydrilla using two RAPD procedures and the Nonindigenous Aquatic Species database

Hydrilla ( Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle), an invasive aquatic weed, continues to spread to new regions in the United States. Two biotypes, one a female dioecious and the other monoecious have been identified. Management of the spread of hydrilla requires understanding the mechanisms of introduction and transport, an ability to map and make available information on distribution, and tools to distinguish the known U.S. biotypes as well as potential new introductions. Review of the literature and discussions with aquatic scientists and resource managers point to the aquarium and water garden plant trades as the primary past mechanism for the regional dispersal of hydrilla while local dispersal is primarily carried out by other mechanisms such as boat traffic, intentional introductions, and waterfowl. The Nonindigenous Aquatic Species (NAS) database is presented as a tool for assembling, geo-referencing, and making available information on the distribution of hydrilla. A map of the current range of dioecious and monoecious hydrilla by drainage is presented. Four hydrilla samples, taken from three discrete, non-contiguous regions (Pennsylvania, Connecticut, and Washington State) were examined using two RAPD assays. The first, generated using primer Operon G17, and capable of distinguishing the dioecious and monoecious U.S. biotypes, indicated all four samples were of the monoecious biotype. Results of the second assay using the Stoffel fragment and 5 primers, produced 111 markers, indicated that these samples do not represent new foreign introductions. The differences in the monoecious and dioecious growth habits and management are discussed.

Management of wetland resources in the lower Mekong Basin: issues and future directions

The Lower Mekong Basin has extensive wetlands and these are being threatened by numerous problems. Most of these problems are interdependent and interact with one another. The lack of an appropriate definition of wetlands applicable to the region, pervasive inefficiencies and chronic lack of funds among riparian governments, and the poor appreciation of the true economic importance of wetlands and its resources are among the most prominent. The current definition, based on the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971), is too broad when compared to the understanding of wetlands as being swamps, marshes and the like, and was developed specifically for wetlands with international importance as waterfowl habitats. Furthermore, wetlands are composed of different types of resources, which require different modes of management. Often, institutional competition, overlapping mandates and sometimes jealousies occur between government departments when they try to assert their authority on a particular wetland resource and use, and put forward their development plans without considering how these may conflict with other wetlands uses. Finally, effective wetland management requires reliable statistics or information on rate of harvest of natural resources such as fish and others, fishing/harvesting methods over time in order to determine the level of exploitation, and the status of the natural resources. This information is needed to identify opportunities for expansion, to establish historical trends, and to determine when management interventions are necessary to protect the resources from being overused by other developments. In order to address these issues, ICLARM - The World Fish Center has launched a project, the aim of objectives of which are described in this paper.

现代黄河三角洲湿地景观变化及其对水禽生境的影响

本文研究的开展主要源于国家海洋局海洋公益性行业科研专项经费项目“渤海典型区域的海洋多过程数据整合研究”课题支撑。在湿地日益退化丧失的全球背景下，本文选择沉积年代较轻、生态环境比较脆弱，且当前人类活动不断加剧的现代黄河三角洲为研究区，采用1999、2001、2004和2008年的Landsat5 TM遥感影像，选择丹顶鹤和黑嘴鸥为指示物种，结合野外实地调查和历史数据资料的整理和分析，以及黄河三角洲自然保护区对鸟类的监测记录结果，开展现代黄河三角洲湿地景观变化及其对水禽生境的影响研究。 论文的主要研究结果如下： 1、建立了服务于黄河三角洲湿地水禽生境保护的湿地景观分类体系 在系统分析研究区域湿地水禽生活习性和生态分布特征的基础上，从鸟类生境选择的概念出发，建立了服务于黄河三角洲湿地水禽生境保护的湿地景观分类体系。该分类体系一共分为4级，其中，第三级分类系统下天然湿地的划分是从鸟类选择的“大生境”角度出发，即根据区域地表类型，进一步将海洋/海岸湿地和内陆三角洲湿地划分成浅海水域、潮间淤泥滩、潮沟、河口水域、潮间盐沼、河流湿地和沼泽湿地7类。而第四级分类系统下天然湿地的划分则是从鸟类选择的“小生境”（即对水、食物、隐蔽物、干扰等的需求）角度出发，并按照水文和典型植被类型，进一步将天然湿地的三级类型划分为碱蓬沼泽、芦苇沼泽、柽柳灌丛沼泽等33类。 2、系统研究了现代黄河三角洲湿地景观格局的动态变化和影响因素 根据景观生态学理论，选取用于分析的景观格局指数，并从湿地景观类型的组成特征变化、面积变化、形状特征变化、空间配置特征变化四个方面分析在黄河断流前到其恢复正常行水至今的时间里三角洲湿地景观格局的动态变化，研究结果表明：在1999~2008年的9年间，天然湿地构成了现代黄河三角洲景观的主体，约占研究区域景观总面积的65%~75%，决定了该地区湿地的主要结构和功能。但随着人类对土地资源利用方式的不断改变和强度的提高，天然湿地景观呈萎缩退化趋势，9年内共减少338.44 km2，约占研究区景观总面积的8.90%。与此同时，盐田、养殖池塘等人工湿地和耕地等非湿地面积不断扩张，人工湿地面积增加量约为242.08km2，约占研究区景观总面积的6.37%，非湿地面积增加量约为96.36 km2，约占研究区景观总面积的2.53%。从一些重要的景观指数的计算结果来看，研究区域整体景观斑块数量呈增加趋势，平均斑块大小随之减小，景观边界密度大小、聚集度指数也呈下降趋势，表明从1999到2008年研究区域整体景观被边界分割的程度加深，整体景观中的斑块在空间分布上隔离程度加重，开始由大片连续分布向小块离散分布转变，景观的破碎化程度加重。 湿地景观格局变化的驱动机制分析表明，影响研究区湿地景观变化的主要因素包括三个方面，即：黄河水沙条件的驱动力、湿地自身演替驱动力和人为驱动力。在1999~2008年的9年间，黄河虽然恢复正常行水，不再断流，但入海泥沙量的明显减少使得除现行河口处沙嘴继续向海缓慢延伸外，黄河三角洲总体上处于侵蚀状态。湿地自身的演替主要体现在湿地由裸露淤泥质滩涂向发育典型湿地植物群落的顺向演替，以及发育有典型湿地植物群落的湿地向裸露淤泥质滩涂逆向演替两个方面。在1999~2008年间9年里，湿地顺向发育演替面积约130.64 km2，而逆向发育演替面积约为99.51 km2。人类活动一直以来都是影响黄河三角洲湿地景观变化不可忽视的营造力。大规模的滩涂围垦和养殖、农业用地的不断开垦和扩张，以及密集的油田开发活动不仅缩减了原本生长着芦苇茅草等植物的天然湿地资源，而且加重了三角洲湿地景观的破碎程度。 3、在整个研究区域尺度上深刻分析了丹顶鹤和黑嘴鸥潜在生境的适宜性 根据黄河三角洲自然保护区关于鸟类的监测记录资料，在深入分析湿地水禽生活习性和分布特征的基础上，选择丹顶鹤和黑嘴鸥为指示物种，从鸟类生境选择自身的特征出发，确定地表类型、水、食物、隐蔽物和干扰为影响两种鸟类类群进行生境选择的因素，并构建生境适宜性评价模型，在整个研究区域尺度上对两种鸟类类群的潜在生境进行适宜性评价和动态变化分析。研究结果表明，在不考虑居民地、油田作业用地和道路等干扰因子对生境产生的破碎化效应影响时，适宜丹顶鹤和黑嘴鸥生存的生境类型在1999~2008年间占研究区整体景观总面积的比重均在30%以上，其中天然湿地约占适宜生境类型面积的95%，可利用的人工湿地比重极小，但呈缓慢增加趋势，且由于可利用的天然湿地生境类型的逐年减少使得适宜两种鸟类类群的生境类型总面积总体上呈萎缩趋势。在考虑居民地、油田作业用地和道路等干扰因子对生境产生的破碎化效应影响时，适宜丹顶鹤和黑嘴鸥生存的生境类型在1999~2008年间占研究区域整体景观总面积的百分比由之前接近40%下降到20%以下，面积减少量均在600 km2以上。 4、系统分析了研究区湿地景观变化对水禽生境的影响 从研究区湿地景观基质的面积变化、形状和空间邻接关系变化、破碎化等三个方面分析了研究区湿地景观变化对丹顶鹤和黑嘴鸥两种鸟类类群生境的影响，结果表明，湿地景观基质中天然湿地的变化与丹顶鹤、黑嘴鸥适宜生境的大小和空间分布密切相关。在1999~2008年间，随着天然湿地面积的减少，适宜以上两种鸟类类群的生境面积也随之减少，两者呈正相关关系；在1999~2008年间，研究区天然湿地和人工湿地景观基质整体的形状指数均在1.0附近，表明湿地景观基质整体上的边缘效应较小，但建设用地、农林用地等非湿地景观与丹顶鹤和黑嘴鸥适宜生境类型中的主导类型——潮间淤泥滩、潮间盐沼和沼泽湿地等三种景观类型的频繁邻接，对于保护两种鸟类类群十分不利，应积极采取相应的措施加强保护力度；在1999~2008年间，研究区景观整体，以及湿地景观基质结构的破碎化，导致鸟类可利用的天然湿地和人工湿地景观内部斑块之间的连接程度下降，从而使得丹顶鹤、黑嘴

Assessing potential of production in Lake Choghakhor

Phytoplankton productivity is the common and important factor being considered in determining the overall status of a given body of water. This is because they are found at the base of an energy or food chain, being the basic source of primary food in a given aquatic system. Hence, information on their contribution is essential in indicating how much biomass energy will be available to all other living resources in the system. Though the primary productivity of shallow lakes is characterized by mixed populations of phytoplankton and submersed aquatic vegetation in the open water. Lake Choghakhor, is a shallow lake, located in Chaharmahal-Bakhtiyari Province. This lake is the most important ecosystem in the region especially for waterfowl populations, has a recreational value and supports tourism and fisheries. During last decade Choghakhor has been influenced by some man-made impacts such as water level fluctuation, agricultural discharge and fish (Cyprinids) introduction causing a serious problem in its trophic states. So water quality for physical, chemical and biological was monitored in five sampling stations, from April 2003 to March 2004. As biological parameters we studied phytoplankton, epiphytic algae, and zooplankton and macrobenthose community structure. Chlorophyll a content for phytoplankton and epiphytes was measured to estimate production of these groups (biomass over time). Also we determined biomasses of submersed macrophytes and macrobenthose and primary production of phytoplankton (dark and light bottles technique) to estimate fish production. The results of this study showed Lake Choghakhor did not undergo stable thermal and oxygen stratification, and the lake water was mixed throughout the study (the lake mixing regime is polymictic). Now submerged plants especially Myriophyllum spicatum has covered almost the entire lake and dense macrophyte beds (Polygonom amphibium), located on the east southern end of the lake appear to act as a sink for these nutrients. Lake Choghakhor appeared to be in a macrophyte dominated clear water state with low TP (annual mean: 24± 15μg.l-1) and chlorophyll a (annual mean: 3±1.28μg.l-1) concentrations and very high Secchi depth. The grazing pressure of dominant pelagic filtering zooplankton Daphnia longespina did not seem to be significant in determining the low phytoplankton crop expressed as chlorophyll a. We expect that sequestering of nutrients by submerged plants and associated epiphytes are the dominant stabilizing mechanisms suppressing the phytoplankton crop of Lake Choghakhor.