International Advanced Water Technologies Centre, IAWTC/LADEC and LUT 2013 : Questionnaire Responses from Russian Drinking Water and Wastewater Treatment Plants

In this report, information is published concerning Russian water and wastewater treatment plants. The information is based on a questionnaire sent to 70 water and wastewater treatment plants in 2012-2013. The questionnaire was prepared by the International Advanced Water Technologies Centre (IAWTC) and Lahti Development Company (LADEC). The questions dealt with an assessment of the present state, the need for changes, renovation, investments, and how to improve the efficiency of the operation by training and investments. A significant need to renew the old pipelines, constructions, and processes was clearly evident. The aggregated answers can be utilized in Russia as internal benchmarking in order to arrange training and plant visits, which were requested in many of the answers. Sharing this open report with the respondents can aid networking and awareness of HELCOM requirements which relate to waste water treatment plants discharging their waste water directly or indirectly into the Baltic Sea. The aim of this report is to provide information for Finnish small and medium size companies (SMEs) as regards possible water related exportation to different parts of Russia.

Development of Zero Water Exchange Shrimp Culture System Integrated With Bioremediation of Detritus and Ammonia- Nitrogen

Aquaculture is one of the fastest growing food sectors in the world. Amongst the various branches of aquaculture, shrimp culture has expanded rapidly across the globe because of its faster growth rate, short culture period, high export value and demand in the International market. Indian shrimp farming has experienced phenomenal development over the decades due to its excellent commercial viability. Farmers have adopted a number of innovative technologies to improve the production and to maximize the returns per unit area. The culture methods adopted can be classified in to extensive, modified extensive and semi intensive based on the management strategies adopted in terms of pond size, stocking density, feeding and environmental control. In all these systems water exchanges through the natural tidal effects, or pump fed either from creek or from estuaries is a common practice. In all the cases, the systems are prone to epizootics due to the pathogen introduction through the incoming water, either brought by vectors, reservoir hosts, infected tissue debris and free pathogens themselves. In this scenario, measures to prevent the introduction of pathogen have become a necessity to protect the crop from the onslaught of diseases as well as to prevent the discharge of waste water in to the culture environment.The present thesis deals with Standardization of bioremediation technology for zero water exchange shrimp culture system

Connecting the Water and Carbon Cycles for the Generation of Food Security and Ecosystem Services

Water scarcity and food insecurity are pervasive issues in the developing world and are also intrinsically linked to one another. Through the connection of the water cycle and the carbon cycle this study illustrates that synergistic benefits can be realized by small scale farmers through the implementation of waste water irrigated agroforestry. The WaNuLCAS model is employed using La Huerta agroforestry site in Texcoco, South Central Mexico, as the basis for parameterization. The results of model simulations depicting scenarios of water scarcity and waste water irrigation clearly show that the addition of waste water greatly increases the agroforestry system’s generation of crop yields, above- and below-ground biomass, soil organic matter and carbon storage potential. This increase in carbon sequestration by the system translates into better local food security, diversified household income through payments for ecosystem services and contributes to the mitigation of global climate change.

Climate change impacts in the design of drainage systems: case study of Portugal

This paper aims to assess the necessity of updating the intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) curves used in Portugal to design building storm-water drainage systems. A comparative analysis of the design was performed for the three predefined rainfall regions in Portugal using the IDF curves currently in use and estimated for future decades. Data for recent and future climate conditions simulated by a global and regional climate model chain are used to estimate possible changes of rainfall extremes and its implications for the drainage systems. The methodology includes the disaggregation of precipitation up to subhourly scales, the robust development of IDF curves, and the correction of model bias. Obtained results indicate that projected changes are largest for the plains in southern Portugal (5–33%) than for mountainous regions (3–9%) and that these trends are consistent with projected changes in the long-term 95th percentile of the daily precipitation throughout the 21st century. The authors conclude there is a need to review the current precipitation regime classification and change the new drainage systems towards larger dimensions to mitigate the projected changes in extreme precipitation.

Detection of assemblages A and B of Giardia duodenalis in water and sewage from Sao Paulo state, Brazil

Giardia duodenalis is a protozoan that parasitizes humans and other mammals and causes giardiasis. Although its isolates have been divided into seven assemblages, named A to G, only A and B have been detected in human faeces. Assemblage A isolates are commonly divided into two genotypes, AI and AII. Even though information about the presence of this protozoan in water and sewage is available in Brazil, it is important to verify the distribution of different assemblages that might be present, which can only be done by genotyping techniques. A total of 24 raw and treated sewage, surface and spring water samples were collected, concentrated and purified. DNA was extracted, and a nested PCR was used to amplify an 890 bp fragment of the gdh gene of G. duodenalis, which codes for glutamate dehydrogenase. Positive samples were cloned and sequenced. Ten out of 24 (41.6%) samples were confirmed to be positive for G. duodenalis by sequencing. Phylogenetic analysis grouped most sequences with G. duodenalis genotype AII from GenBank. Only two raw sewage samples presented sequences assigned to assemblage B. In one of these samples genotype AII was also detected. As these assemblages/genotypes are commonly associated to human giardiasis, the contact with these matrices represents risk for public health.

Performance of constructed wetland system for public water supply

The project is being conducted in the town of Analândia, São Paulo, Brazil. The constructed wetlands system for water supply consists of a channel with floating aquatic macrophytes, HDS system (Water Decontamination with Soil - Patent PI 850.3030), chlorinating system, filtering system and distribution. The project objectives include investigating the process variables to further optimize design and operation factors, evaluating the relation of nutrients and plants development, biomass production, shoot development, nutrient cycling and total and fecal coliforms removal, comparing the treatment efficiency among the seasons of the year; and moreover to compare the average values obtained between February and June 1998 (Salati et al., 1998) with the average obtained for the same parameters between March and June 2000. Studies have been developed in order to verify during one year the drinking quality of the water for the following parameters: turbidity, color, pH, dissolved oxygen, total of dissolved solids, COD, chloride, among others, according to the Ministry of Health's Regulation 36. This system of water supply projected to treat 15 L s-1 has been in continuous operation for 2 years, it was implemented with support of the National Environment Fund (FNMA), administered by the Center of Environmental Studies (CEA-UNESP), while the technical supervision and design were performed by the Institute of Applied Ecology. The actual research project is being supported by FAPESP.

Efeito da salinidade e do esgoto orgânico sobre a comunidade zooplanctônica, com ênfase nos copépodes, do estuário do rio Itanhaém, Estado de São Paulo

The objective of this work is to analyze the effects of salinity and wastewater on the zooplankton community of the Itanhaém river estuary, São Paulo state. Samples of zooplankton as well as physical and chemical variables of water were collected in four sites, located between the coastal line and the superior part of the estuary, including a secondary channel where wastewater is thrown without previous treatment. The samples were collected in low and high tide in winter and summer. Results showed that the estuary presents a temporal and spatial variation of physical and chemical characteristics, especially salinity, in function of the tide and seasonal variation of rain. The high values of salinity occurred in winter and high tide. Zooplankton community was adapted to the dynamic of salinity, and marine and estuarine species occurred in the low part of the estuary in winter. Although the Itanhaém river estuary has the same temporal and spatial dynamic of other estuaries, the values of salinity are low when compared with others located in the southern coast of São Paulo. Consequently, mainly oligohaline and fresh water species constitute the zooplankton community. These characteristics are due to the great drainage area of the Itanhaém river basin. The waste water modified physical and chemical characteristics of water that now presents higher concentrations of nutrients, higher values of suspended matter and lower concentrations of oxygen. It was observed a positive relation between the density of nauplii of copepods and organic pollution in this estuary.

Water availability determines the richness and density of fig trees within Brazilian semideciduous forest landscapes

The success of fig trees in tropical ecosystems is evidenced by the great diversity (+750 species) and wide geographic distribution of the genus. We assessed the contribution of environmental variables on the species richness and density of fig trees in fragments of seasonal semideciduous forest (SSF) in Brazil. We assessed 20 forest fragments in three regions in Sao Paulo State, Brazil. Fig tree richness and density was estimated in rectangular plots, comprising 31.4 ha sampled. Both richness and fig tree density were linearly modeled as function of variables representing (1) fragment metrics, (2) forest structure, and (3) landscape metrics expressing water drainage in the fragments. Model selection was performed by comparing the AIC values (Akaike Information Criterion) and the relative weight of each model (wAIC). Both species richness and fig tree density were better explained by the water availability in the fragment (meter of streams/ha): wAICrichness = 0.45, wAICdensity = 0.96. The remaining variables related to anthropic perturbation and forest structure were of little weight in the models. The rainfall seasonality in SSF seems to select for both establishment strategies and morphological adaptations in the hemiepiphytic fig tree species. In the studied SSF, hemiepiphytes established at lower heights in their host trees than reported for fig trees in evergreen rainforests. Some hemiepiphytic fig species evolved superficial roots extending up to 100 m from their trunks, resulting in hectare-scale root zones that allow them to efficiently forage water and soil nutrients. The community of fig trees was robust to variation in forest structure and conservation level of SSF fragments, making this group of plants an important element for the functioning of seasonal tropical forests. © 2013 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

An integrated approach to evaluate emerging contaminants in drinking water

The chemical stock of emerging contaminants in Brazilian drinking water is of great interest due to the poor water quality at surface water intakes. In addition, little is known about the effect of some contaminants, such as endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), which may be present in both raw and treated water. The aim of this work was to evaluate selected emerging contaminants in Brazilian waters using both chemical and biological analyses. Sampling sites were established in different municipalities based upon raw water quality data. Estrone, 17 beta-estradiol, estriol, 17 alpha-ethinylestradiol, bisphenol A, 4-n-octylphenol and 4-n-nonylphenol were determined in the samples by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. A yeast assay using a Saccharomyces cerevisiae bioluminescent bioreporter was used to evaluate the estrogenic activity of the water samples. The first integrated results revealed similarities between the two individual approaches, since higher values for the bioassay were accompanied by significant concentrations of some selected compounds in surface water samples. No estrogenicity was observed for drinking water samples. Our results also indicate that the usual paradigm of evaluating water quality by measuring selected EDCs in a given water sample via chemical analysis, needs to be reviewed since the observed estrogenicity of a water sample is now a better guiding parameter to the selection of samples and substances to be chemically investigated in further analysis. So far, the data bank produced in this work, i.e., the comparison between chemical burden and observed estrogenicity, is not yet sufficiently robust to fully guide this decision. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Drainage of thin aqueous films between solid surfaces measured with the colloidal probe technique

Understanding liquid flow at the vicinity of solid surfaces is crucial to the developmentrnof technologies to reduce drag. One possibility to infer flow properties at the liquid-solid interface is to compare the experimental results to solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations assuming the no-slip boundary condition (BC) or the slip BC. There is no consensus in the literature about which BC should be used to model the flow of aqueous solutions over hydrophilic surfaces. Here, the colloidal probe technique is used to systematically address this issue, measuring forces acting during drainage of water over a surface. Results show that experimental variables, especially the cantilever spring constant, lead to the discrepancy observed in the literature. Two different parameters, calculated from experimental variables, could be used to separate the data obtained in this work and those reported in the literature in two groups: one explained with the no-slip BC, and another with the slip BC. The observed residual slippage is a function of instrumental variables, showing a trend incompatible with the available physical justifications. As a result, the no-slip is the more appropriate BC. The parameters can be used to avoid situations where the no-slip BC is not satisfied.

Imaging and modeling of pore scale processes in porous media using X-ray computed tomography and lattice Boltzmann solver

In der Erdöl– und Gasindustrie sind bildgebende Verfahren und Simulationen auf der Porenskala im Begriff Routineanwendungen zu werden. Ihr weiteres Potential lässt sich im Umweltbereich anwenden, wie z.B. für den Transport und Verbleib von Schadstoffen im Untergrund, die Speicherung von Kohlendioxid und dem natürlichen Abbau von Schadstoffen in Böden. Mit der Röntgen-Computertomografie (XCT) steht ein zerstörungsfreies 3D bildgebendes Verfahren zur Verfügung, das auch häufig für die Untersuchung der internen Struktur geologischer Proben herangezogen wird. Das erste Ziel dieser Dissertation war die Implementierung einer Bildverarbeitungstechnik, die die Strahlenaufhärtung der Röntgen-Computertomografie beseitigt und den Segmentierungsprozess dessen Daten vereinfacht. Das zweite Ziel dieser Arbeit untersuchte die kombinierten Effekte von Porenraumcharakteristika, Porentortuosität, sowie die Strömungssimulation und Transportmodellierung in Porenräumen mit der Gitter-Boltzmann-Methode. In einer zylindrischen geologischen Probe war die Position jeder Phase auf Grundlage der Beobachtung durch das Vorhandensein der Strahlenaufhärtung in den rekonstruierten Bildern, das eine radiale Funktion vom Probenrand zum Zentrum darstellt, extrahierbar und die unterschiedlichen Phasen ließen sich automatisch segmentieren. Weiterhin wurden Strahlungsaufhärtungeffekte von beliebig geformten Objekten durch einen Oberflächenanpassungsalgorithmus korrigiert. Die Methode der „least square support vector machine” (LSSVM) ist durch einen modularen Aufbau charakterisiert und ist sehr gut für die Erkennung und Klassifizierung von Mustern geeignet. Aus diesem Grund wurde die Methode der LSSVM als pixelbasierte Klassifikationsmethode implementiert. Dieser Algorithmus ist in der Lage komplexe geologische Proben korrekt zu klassifizieren, benötigt für den Fall aber längere Rechenzeiten, so dass mehrdimensionale Trainingsdatensätze verwendet werden müssen. Die Dynamik von den unmischbaren Phasen Luft und Wasser wird durch eine Kombination von Porenmorphologie und Gitter Boltzmann Methode für Drainage und Imbibition Prozessen in 3D Datensätzen von Böden, die durch synchrotron-basierte XCT gewonnen wurden, untersucht. Obwohl die Porenmorphologie eine einfache Methode ist Kugeln in den verfügbaren Porenraum einzupassen, kann sie dennoch die komplexe kapillare Hysterese als eine Funktion der Wassersättigung erklären. Eine Hysterese ist für den Kapillardruck und die hydraulische Leitfähigkeit beobachtet worden, welche durch die hauptsächlich verbundenen Porennetzwerke und der verfügbaren Porenraumgrößenverteilung verursacht sind. Die hydraulische Konduktivität ist eine Funktion des Wassersättigungslevels und wird mit einer makroskopischen Berechnung empirischer Modelle verglichen. Die Daten stimmen vor allem für hohe Wassersättigungen gut überein. Um die Gegenwart von Krankheitserregern im Grundwasser und Abwässern vorhersagen zu können, wurde in einem Bodenaggregat der Einfluss von Korngröße, Porengeometrie und Fluidflussgeschwindigkeit z.B. mit dem Mikroorganismus Escherichia coli studiert. Die asymmetrischen und langschweifigen Durchbruchskurven, besonders bei höheren Wassersättigungen, wurden durch dispersiven Transport aufgrund des verbundenen Porennetzwerks und durch die Heterogenität des Strömungsfeldes verursacht. Es wurde beobachtet, dass die biokolloidale Verweilzeit eine Funktion des Druckgradienten als auch der Kolloidgröße ist. Unsere Modellierungsergebnisse stimmen sehr gut mit den bereits veröffentlichten Daten überein.

POST-PROJECT ASSESSMENT OF PIT LATRINES IN RURAL PANAMA

In Panama, one of the Environmental Health (EH) Sector’s primary goals is to improve the health of rural Panamanians by helping them to adopt behaviors and practices that improve access to and use of sanitation systems. In complying with this goal, the EH sector has used participatory development models to improve hygiene and increase access to latrines through volunteer managed latrine construction projects. Unfortunately, there is little understanding of the long term sustainability of these interventions after the volunteers have completed their service. With the Peace Corps adapting their Monitoring, Reporting, and Evaluation procedures, it is appropriate to evaluate the sustainability of sanitation interventions offering recommendations for the adaptions of the EH training program, project management, and evaluation procedures. Recognizing the need for evaluation of past latrine projects, the author performed a post project assessment of 19 pit latrine projects using participatory analysis methodologies. First, the author reviewed volunteers’ perspectives of pit latrine projects in a survey. Then, for comparison, the author performed a survey of latrine projects using a benchmarking scoring system to rate solid waste management, drainage, latrine siting, latrine condition, and hygiene. It was observed that the Sanitation WASH matrix created by the author was an effective tool for evaluating the efficacy of sanitation interventions. Overall more than 75%, of latrines constructed were in use. However, there were some areas where improvements could be made for both latrine construction and health and hygiene. The latrines scored poorly on the indicators related to the privacy structure and seat covers. Interestingly those are the two items least likely to be included in project subsidies. Furthermore, scores for hygiene-related indicators were low; particularly those related to hand washing and cleanliness of the kitchen, indicating potential for improvement in hygiene education. Based on these outcomes, the EH sector should consider including subsidies and standardized designs for privacy structures and seat covers for latrines. In addition, the universal adoption of contracts and/or deposits for project beneficiaries is expected to improve the completion of latrines. In order to address the low scores in the health and hygiene indicators, the EH sector should adapt volunteer training, in addition to standardizing health and hygiene intervention procedures. In doing so, the sector should mimic the Community Health Club model that has shown success in improving health and hygiene indicators, as well as use a training session plan format similar to those in the Water Committee Seminar manual. Finally, the sector should have an experienced volunteer dedicated to program oversight and post-project monitoring and evaluation.

REMEDIATION OF TETRACYCLINE FROM WATER SOURCES USING VETIVER GRASS (Chrysopogon zizanioides L. Nash) AND TETRACYCLINE-TOLERANT ROOT-ASSOCIATED BACTERIA

Antibiotics are emerging contaminants worldwide. Due to insufficient policy regulations, public awareness, and the constant exposure of the environment to antibiotic sources has created a major environmental concern. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) are not equipped to filter-out these compounds before the discharge of the disinfected effluent into water sources (e.g., lakes and streams) and current available technologies are not equipped to remediate these compounds from environmental sources. Hence, the challenge remains to establish a biological system to remove these antibiotics from wastewater. An invitro hydroponic remediation system was developed using vetiver grass (Chrysopogon zizanioides L. Nash) to remediate tetracycline (TC) from water. Comparative metabolomics studies were conducted to investigate the metabolites/pathways associated with tetracycline metabolism in plants and TC-degrading bacteria. The results show that vetiver plants effectively uptake tetracycline from water sources. Vetiver root-associated bacteria recovered during the hydroponic remediation trial were highly tolerant to TC (as high as 600 ppm) and could use TC as a sole carbon and energy source. Growth conditions (pH, temperature, and oxygen requirement) for TC-tolerant bacteria were optimized for higher TC remediation capability from water sources. The plant (roots and shoots) and bacterial species were further characterized for the metabolites produced during the TC degradation process using GC-MS to identify the possible biochemical mechanism involved. Also, the plant root zone was screened for metabolites/enzymes that were secreted during antibiotic degradation and could potentially enhance the degradation process. The root zone was selected for this analysis because this region of the plant has shown a greater capacity for antibiotic degradation compared to the shoot zone. The role of antioxidant enzymes in TC degradation process revealed glutathione-S-transferase (GSTs) as an important group of enzymes in both plant and bacteria potentially involved in TC degradation process. Metabolomics results also suggest potential GST activity in the TC remediation/ transformation process used by plants. This information could be useful in gaining insights for the application of biological remediation systems for the mitigation of antibiotics from waste-water.

Using 18O/2H, 3H/3He, 85Kr and CFCs to determine mean residence times and water origin in the Grazer and Leibnitzer Feld groundwater bodies (Austria)

Two groundwater bodies, Grazer Feld and Leibnitzer Feld, with surface areas of 166 and 103 km2 respectively are characterised for the first time by measuring the combination of d18O/d2H, 3H/3He, 85Kr, CFC-11, CFC-12 and hydrochemistry in 34 monitoring wells in 2009/2010. The timescales of groundwater recharge have been characterised by 131 d18O measurements of well and surface water sampled on a seasonal basis. Most monitoring wells show a seasonal variation or indicate variable contributions of the main river Mur (0–30%, max. 70%) and/or other rivers having their recharge areas in higher altitudes. Combined d18O/d2H-measurements indicate that 65–75% of groundwater recharge in the unusual wet year of 2009 was from precipitation in the summer based on values from the Graz meteorological station. Monitoring wells downstream of gravel pit lakes show a clear evaporation trend. A boron–nitrate differentiation plot shows more frequent boron-rich water in the more urbanised Grazer Feld and more frequent nitrate-rich water in the more agricultural used Leibnitzer Feld indicating that a some of the nitrate load in the Grazer Feld comes from urban sewer water. Several lumped parameter models based on tritium input data from Graz and monthly data from the river Mur (Spielfeld) since 1977 yield a Mean Residence Time (MRT) for the Mur-water itself between 3 and 4 years in this area. Data from d18O, 3H/3He measurements at the Wagna lysimeter station supports the conclusion that 90% of the groundwaters in the Grazer Feld and 73% in the Leibnitzer Feld have MRTs of <5 years. Only in a few groundwaters were MRTs of 6–10 or 11–25 years as a result of either a long-distance water inflow in the basins or due to longer flow path in somewhat deeper wells (>20 m) with relative thicker unsaturated zones. The young MRT of groundwater from two monitoring wells in the Leibnitzer Feld was confirmed by 85Kr-measurements. Most CFC-11 and CFC-12 concentrations in the groundwater exceed the equilibration concentrations of modern concentrations in water and are therefore unsuitable for dating purposes. An enrichment factor up to 100 compared to atmospheric equilibrium concentrations and the obvious correlation of CFC-12 with SO4, Na, Cl and B in the ground waters of the Grazer Feld suggest that waste water in contact with CFC-containing material above and below ground is the source for the contamination. The dominance of very young groundwater (<5 years) indicates a recent origin of the contamination by nitrate and many other components observed in parts of the groundwater bodies. Rapid measures to reduce those sources are needed to mitigate against further deterioration of these waters.