Bt cotton, pesticides, labour and health - A case study of smallholder farmers in the Makhathini Flats, Republic of South Africa

This paper describes some of the results of a detailed farm-level survey of 32 small-scale cotton farmers in the Makhathini Flats region of South Africa. The aim was to assess and measure some of the impacts (especially in terms of savings in pesticide and labour as well as benefits to human health) attributable to the use of insect-tolerant Bt cotton. The study reveals a direct cost benefit for Bt growers of SAR416 ($51) per hectare per season due to a reduction in the number of insecticide applications. Cost savings emerged in the form of lower requirements for pesticide, but also important were reduced requirements for water and labour. The reduction in the number of sprays was particularly beneficial to women who do some spraying and children who collect water and assist in spraying. The increasing adoption rate of Bt cotton appears to have a health benefit measured in terms of reported rates of accidental insecticide poisoning. These appear to be declining as the uptake of Bt cotton increases. However, the understanding of refugia and their management by local farmers are deficient and need improving. Finally, Bt cotton growers emerge as more resilient in absorbing price fluctuations.

Bt cotton, pesticides, labour and health - A case study of smallholder farmers in the Makhathini Flats, Republic of South Africa

This paper describes some of the results of a detailed farm-level survey of 32 small-scale cotton farmers in the Makhathini Flats region of South Africa. The aim was to assess and measure some of the impacts (especially in terms of savings in pesticide and labour as well as benefits to human health) attributable to the use of insect-tolerant Bt cotton. The study reveals a direct cost benefit for Bt growers of SAR416 ($51) per hectare per season due to a reduction in the number of insecticide applications. Cost savings emerged in the form of lower requirements for pesticide, but also important were reduced requirements for water and labour. The reduction in the number of sprays was particularly beneficial to women who do some spraying and children who collect water and assist in spraying. The increasing adoption rate of Bt cotton appears to have a health benefit measured in terms of reported rates of accidental insecticide poisoning. These appear to be declining as the uptake of Bt cotton increases. However, the understanding of refugia and their management by local farmers are deficient and need improving. Finally, Bt cotton growers emerge as more resilient in absorbing price fluctuations.

Diversification of a large genus in a continental biodiversity hotspot: temporal and spatial origin of Muraltia (Polygalaceae) in the Cape of South Africa

Phylogenetic relationships in the largely South African genus Muraltia (Polygalaceae) are assessed based on DNA sequence data (nuclear ribosomal ITS, plastid atpB-rbcL spacer, trnL intron, and trnL-F spacer) for 73 of the 117 currently recognized species in the genus. The previously recognised subgenus Muraltia is monophyletic, but the South African endemic genus Nylandtia is embedded in Muraltia subgenus Psiloclada. Subgenus Muraltia is found to be sister to subgenus Psiloclada. Estimates show the beginning of diversification of the two subgenera in the early Miocene (Psiloclada, 19.3+/-3.4 Ma; Muraltia, 21.0+/-3.5 Ma) pre-dating the establishment of the Benguela current (intermittent in the middle to late Oligocene and markedly intensifying in the late Miocene), and summer-dry climate in the Cape region. However, the later increase in species numbers is contemporaneous with these climatic phenomena. Results of dispersal-vicariance analyses indicate that major clades in Muraltia diversified from the southwestern and northwestern Cape, where most of the species are found today.

Levels of toxic and essential metals in maternal and umbilical cord blood from selected areas of South Africa-results of a pilot study

This pilot study uses concentrations of metals in maternal and cord blood at delivery, in seven selected geographical areas of South Africa, to determine prenatal environmental exposure to toxic metals. Samples of maternal and cord whole blood were analysed for levels of cadmium, mercury, lead, manganese, cobalt, copper, zinc, arsenic and selenium. Levels of some measured metals differed by site, indicating different environmental pollution levels in the regions selected for the study. Mercury levels were elevated in two coastal populations studied (Atlantic and Indian Ocean sites) with mothers from the Atlantic site having the highest median concentration of 1.78 mu g/L ranging from 0.44 to 8.82 mu g/L, which was found to be highly significant (p < 0.001) when compared to other sites, except the Indian Ocean site. The highest concentration of cadmium was measured in maternal blood from the Atlantic site with a median value of 0.25 mu g/L (range 0.05-0.89 mu g/L), and statistical significance of p < 0.032, when compared to all other sites studied, and p < 0.001 and p < 0.004 when compared to rural and industrial sites respectively, confounding factor for elevated cadmium levels was found to be cigarette smoking. Levels of lead were highest in the urban site, with a median value of 32.9 mu g/L (range 16-81.5 mu g/L), and statistically significant when compared with other sites (p < 0.003). Levels of selenium were highest in the Atlantic site reaching statistical significance (p < 0.001). All analysed metals were detected in umbilical cord blood samples and differed between sites, with mercury being highest in the Atlantic site (p < 0.001), lead being highest in the urban site (p < 0.004) and selenium in the Atlantic site (p < 0.001). To the best of our knowledge this pilot investigation is the first study performed in South Africa that measured multiple metals in delivering mothers and umbilical cord blood samples. These results will inform the selection of the geographical sites requiring further investigation in the main study.

New Law against an Old State: Land Restitution as a Transition to Justice in Post-Apartheid South Africa?

The research on which this text is based has been financially supported by the Berne University Research Foundation (2009–2011) as well as by an Ambizione Research Fellowship of the Swiss National Science Foundation (2012–2014). During my stays in South Africa, the Departments of Anthropology at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, and the University of South Africa (UNISA), Pretoria, provided me with welcoming and inspiring research environments. This article benefitted greatly from engaged discussions around its presentation at various occasions, notably our ECAS 2011 panel Transition and Justice: Negotiating the Terms of New Beginnings in Africa, held in Uppsala. I am particularly grateful to my co-convener and co-editor Gerhard Anders as well as Laurens Bakker, Keebet von Benda-Beckmann, Ben Cousins, Julia Eckert, Marion Fresia, Vinodh Jaichand, Steffen Jensen, Tim Kelsall, Hanri Mostert, Johanna Mugler, David O'Kane, Julia Pauli, Mats Utas, Julia Zenker and the anonymous referees of Development and Change for their critical engagements.

From Truth to Justice: How Does Amnesty Factor In? A Comparative Analysis of South Africa and Sierra Leone's Truth and Reconciliation Commissions

Truth and Reconciliation Commissions (TRC) have emerged in the last few decades as a mechanism for a state to overcome widespread, grave, human rights violations. There are numerous approaches to a TRC all with an ultimate goal: that formerly warring factions, perpetrators, witnesses, and victims can move forward as a united people. I propose that the provision of amnesty is critical to the success of a TRC. I hypothesize that the form of amnesty chosen (i.e. blanket v. conditional amnesty) determines the revelation of truth and realization of justice, which in turn dictates whether a TRC can achieve reconciliation. To test this hypothesis, I use two case studies: South Africa, which has utilized conditional amnesty, and Sierra Leone which has employed blanket amnesty. I create a model for measuring reconciliation. I can then look at the implications of both types of amnesty and assess which, in the end, is more effective. My overarching conclusion is that the provision of conditional amnesty is more effective than blanket amnesty in achieving reconciliation. Ultimately, I hope that this conclusion can be generalized to other TRCs.

Palynology of the Middle to Late Miocene from ODP Hole 175-1085A off the west coast of South Africa

Aim To test whether the radiation of the extremely rich Cape flora is correlated with marine-driven climate change. Location Middle to Late Miocene in the south-east Atlantic and the Benguela Upwelling System (BUS) off the west coast of South Africa. Methods We studied the palynology of the thoroughly dated Middle to Late Miocene sediments of Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Site 1085 retrieved from the Atlantic off the mouth of the Orange River. Both marine upwelling and terrestrial input are recorded at this site, which allows a direct correlation between changes in the terrestrial flora and the marine BUS in the south-east Atlantic. Results Pollen types from plants of tropical affinity disappeared, and those from the Cape flora gradually increased, between 10 and 6 Ma. Our data corroborate the inferred dating of the diversification in Aizoaceae c. 8 Ma. Main conclusions Inferred vegetation changes for the Late Miocene south-western African coast are the disappearance of Podocarpus-dominated Afromontane forests, and a change in the vegetation of the coastal plain from tropical grassland and thicket to semi-arid succulent vegetation. These changes are indicative of an increased summer drought, and are in step with the development of the southern BUS. They pre-date the Pliocene uplift of the East African escarpment, suggesting that this did not play a role in stimulating vegetation change. Some Fynbos elements were present throughout the recorded period (from 11 Ma), suggesting that at least some elements of this vegetation were already in place during the onset of the BUS. This is consistent with a marine-driven climate change in south-western Africa triggering substantial radiation in the terrestrial flora, especially in the Aizoaceae.

Molecular and genealogical evidence for a founder effect in Fanconi anemia families of the Afrikaner population of South Africa

Fanconi anemia (FA) is a rare, genetically heterogeneous autosomal recessive disorder associated with progressive aplastic anemia, congenital abnormalities, and cancer. FA has a very high incidence in the Afrikaner population of South Africa, possibly due to a founder effect. Previously we observed allelic association between polymorphic markers flanking the FA group A gene (FANCA) and disease chromosomes in Afrikaners. We genotyped 26 FA families with microsatellite and single nucleotide polymorphic markers and detected five FANCA haplotypes. Mutation scanning of the FANCA gene revealed association of these haplotypes with four different mutations. The most common was an intragenic deletion of exons 12–31, accounting for 60% of FA chromosomes in 46 unrelated Afrikaner FA patients, while two other mutations accounted for an additional 20%. Screening for these mutations in the European populations ancestral to the Afrikaners detected one patient from the Western Ruhr region of Germany who was heterozygous for the major deletion. The mutation was associated with the same unique FANCA haplotype as in Afrikaner patients. Genealogical investigation of 12 Afrikaner families with FA revealed that all were descended from a French Huguenot couple who arrived at the Cape on June 5, 1688, whereas mutation analysis showed that the carriers of the major mutation were descendants of this same couple. The molecular and genealogical evidence is consistent with transmission of the major mutation to Western Germany and the Cape near the end of the 17th century, confirming the existence of a founder effect for FA in South Africa.