Cathepsin G is differentially expressed in primary human antigen-presenting cells

Cathepsins are required for the processing of antigens in order to make them suitable for loading on major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules, for subsequent presentation to CD4(+) T cells. It was shown that antigen processing in monocyte-derived dendritic cells (DC), a commonly used DC model, is different from that of primary human DC. Here, we report that the two subsets of human myeloid DC (mDC) and plasmacytoid DC (pDC) differ in their cathepsin distribution. The serine protease cathepsin G (CatG) was detected in mDC1, mDC2, pDC, cortical thymic epithelial cells (cTEC) and high levels of CatG were determined in pDC. To address the role of CatG in the processing and presentation of a Multiple Sclerosis-associated autoantigen myelin basic protein (MBP), we used a non-CatG expressing fibroblast cell line and fibroblasts, which were preloaded with purified CatG. We find that preloading fibroblasts with CatG results in a decrease of MBP84-98-specific T cell proliferation, when compared to control cells. Our data suggest a different processing signature in primary human antigen-presenting cells and CatG may be of functional importance.

Tuning of activation thresholds explains flexibility in the selection and development of T cells in the thymus

Immature CD4+CD8+ thymocytes expressing T-cell antigen receptors (TCR) are selected by TCR-mediated recognition of peptides associated with major histocompatibility complex molecules on thymic stromal cells. Selection ensures reactivity of the mature cells to foreign antigens and tolerance to self. Although much has been learned about the factors that determine whether a thymocyte with a given specificity will be positively or negatively selected, selection as an aspect of the developmental process as a whole is less well-understood. Here we invoke a model in which thymocytes tune their response characteristics individually and dynamically in the course of development. Cellular development and selection are driven by receptor-mediated metabolic perturbations. Perturbation is a measure of the net intracellular change induced by external stimulation. It results from the integration of several signals and countersignals over time and therefore depends on the environment and the maturation stage of the cell. Individual cell adaptation limits the range of perturbations. Such adaptation renders thymocytes less sensitive to the level of stimulation per se, but responsive to environmental changes in that level. This formulation begins to explain the mechanisms that link developmental and selection events to each other.

The matricellular protein SPARC is internalized in Sertoli, Leydig, and germ cells during testis differentiation

The gene encoding the matricellular protein secreted protein, acidic and rich in cysteine (SPARC) was identified in a screen for genes expressed sex-specifically during mouse gonad development, as being strongly upregulated in the male gonad from very early in testis development. We present here a detailed analysis of SPARC gene and protein expression during testis development, from 11.5 to 15.5 days post coitum (dpc). Section in situ hybridization analysis revealed that SPARC mRNA is expressed by the Sertoli cells in the testis cords and the fetal Leydig cells, found within the interstitial space between the testis cords. Immunodetection with anti-SPARC antibody showed that the protein was located inside the testis cords, within the cytoplasm of Sertoli and germ cells. In the interstitium, SPARC was present intracellularly within the Leydig cells. The internalization of SPARC in Sertoli, Leydig, and germ cells suggests that it plays an intracellular regulatory role in these cell types during fetal testis development.

Mice expressing the E7 oncogene of HPV16 in epithelium show central tolerance, and evidence of peripheral anergising tolerance, to E7-encoded cytotoxic T-lymphocyte epitopes

In order to derive mice which expressed both the E7 open reading frame transgene of human papillomavirus type 16 in skin and MHC class 1 restriction elements for several E7-encoded cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) epitopes, K14.HPV16E7 mice which express E7 in basal keratinocytes were crossed to the F1 generation with A2.1 K-b transgenic mice which express the MHC binding cleft domains of human HLA A*0201, and murine H-2(b). F1 mice (denoted K14E7xA2.1) expressed E7 in the thymus at least as early as 2-5 days before birth. Immunisation of FVBxA2.1 control mice (transgenic for HLA A*0201 and H-2(b) but not for E7), with two HLA A*0201-restricted epitopes of E7 and one H-2(b)-restricted CTL epitope of E7, gave strong primary CTL responses recognising epitope-pulsed or constitutively E7-expressing syngeneic target cells. In contrast, in immunised K14E7xA2.1 mice, the CTL responses to the H-2(b) epitope and one of the HLA A*0201 CTL epitopes were strongly down-regulated, and to the other HLA A*0201 epitope, completely abolished, as demonstrated by percentage specific killing by bulk splenocyte cultures in cyrotoxicity assays, and by CTL precursor frequency analysis, In thymus-transplanted bone marrow radiation chimeras in which the immune system of K14E7xA2.1 mice was replaced by a FVBxA2.1 immune system, specific immunisation did not result in reemergence of strong E7-directed CTL responses. In agreement with these in vitro findings, specific immunisation failed to significantly alter the course of E7-associated tumour development in K14E7xA2.1 mice. These data are consistent with a model of central deletional CTL tolerance to E7-encoded epitopes recognised in the context of two distinct MHC class 1 restriction elements, and with the possibility of peripheral T-cell anergy maintained by expression of E7 in the skin. (C) 1998 Academic Press.

Artificial thymus: a tissue engineering strategy

The thymus is the central organ responsible for the generation of T lymphocytes (1). Various diseases cause the thymus to produce in- sufficient T cells, which can lead to immune-suppression (2). Since T cells are essential for the protection against pathogens, it is crucial to promote de novo differentiation of T cells on diseased individuals. The available clinical solutions are: 1) one protocol involving the transplant of thymic stroma from unrelated children only applicable for athymic children (3); 2) for patients with severe peripheral T cell depletion and reduced thymic activity, the administration of stimu- lating molecules stimulating the activity of the endogenous thymus (4). A scaffold (CellFoam) was suggested to support thymus regen- eration in vivo (5), although this research was discontinued. Herein, we propose an innovative strategy to generate a bioartificial thymus. We use a polycaprolactone nanofiber mesh (PCL-NFM) seeded and cultured with human thymic epithelial cells (hTECs). The cells were obtained from infant thymus collected during pediatric cardio-tho- racic surgeries. We report new data on the isolation and characterization of those cells and their interaction with PCL-NFM, by expanding hTECs into relevant numbers and by optimizing cell seeding methods.

Deciphering the unusual HLA-A2/Melan-A/MART-1-specific TCR repertoire in humans.

The Melan-A/MART-1(26-35) antigenic peptide is one of the best studied human tumor-associated antigens. It is expressed in healthy melanocytes and malignant melanoma and is recognized by CD8(+) T cells in the context of the MHC class I molecule HLA-A*0201. While an unusually large repertoire of CD8(+) T cells specific for this antigen has been documented, the reasons for its generation have remained elusive. In this issue of the European Journal of Immunology, Pinto et al. [Eur. J. Immunol. 2014. 44: 2811-2821] uncover one important mechanism by comparing the thymic expression of the Melan-A gene to that in the melanocyte lineage. This study shows that medullary thymic epithelial cells (mTECs) dominantly express a truncated Melan-A transcript, the product of misinitiation of transcription. Consequently, the protein product in mTECs lacks the immunodominant epitope spanning residues 26-35, thus precluding central tolerance to this antigen. In contrast, melanocytes and melanoma tumor cells express almost exclusively the full-length Melan-A transcript, thus providing the target antigen for efficient recognition by HLA-A2-restricted CD8(+) T cells. The frequency of these alternative gene transcription modes may be more common than previously appreciated and may represent an important factor modulating the efficiency of central tolerance induction in the thymus.

Harnessing epithelial stem cell potency

Increase in potency of adult stem/progenitor cells holds great expectations for regenerative medicine; reprogramming is achieved by manipulating the genome or indirectly by manipulating the microenvironment. However, the genetic approach, which can result in lineage conversion up to ground pluripotent embryonic state, will certainly face strict regulatory constraints and consequently translation to the clinic may be difficult. Manipulating stem cell fate without altering the genome of adult stem cells is a promising alternative. My laboratory has demonstrated that non hairy squamous epithelia e.g. the cornea, the oral cavity, the oesophagus, the vagina, contain clonogenic stem cells that can respond to skin morphogenetic signals and form epidermis, cycling hair follicles and sebaceous glands. This capacity is maintained in serial transplantation, crosses primary germ line boundaries and is intrinsic to the stem cells, as cells which have never been exposed to cell culture behave in a similar fashion. Even more surprising, the thymus contains a population of clonogenic epithelial cells of endodermal origin that maintain a thymic identity in culture and have the capacity to incorporate into a thymic network, but can acquire the functionality of bona fide multipotent stem cells of the skin when exposed to proper developmental signals. Thymic epithelial cells exposed to a skin microenvironment exhibit a down-regulation or silencing of transcription factors important for thymic function. Hence, it is possible to reveal unsuspected potency and even to robustly reprogram stem cells by solely manipulating the microenvironment.

Notch 1-deficient common lymphoid precursors adopt a B cell fate in the thymus.

We have recently reported that Notch 1, a member of the Notch multigene family, is essential for the development of murine T cells. Using a mouse model in which Notch 1 is inactivated in bone marrow (BM) precursors we have shown that B cells instead of T cells are found in the thymus of BM chimeras. However, it is not clear whether these B cells develop by default from a common lymphoid precursor due to the absence of Notch 1 signaling, or whether they arise as a result of perturbed migration of BM-derived B cells and/or altered homeostasis of normal resident thymic B cells. In this report we show that Notch 1-deficient thymic B cells resemble BM B cells in phenotype and turnover kinetics and are located predominantly in the medulla and corticomedullary junction. Peripheral blood lymphocyte analysis shows no evidence of recirculating Notch1(-/)- BM B cells. Furthermore, lack of T cell development is not due to a failure of Notch1(-/)- precursors to home to the thymus, as even after intrathymic reconstitution with BM cells, B cells instead of T cells develop from Notch 1-deficient precursors. Taken together, these results provide evidence for de novo ectopic B cell development in the thymus, and support the hypothesis that in the absence of Notch 1 common lymphoid precursors adopt the default cell fate and develop into B cells instead.

The conveyor belt hypothesis for thymocyte migration: participation of adhesion and de-adhesion molecules

Thymocyte differentiation is the process by which bone marrow-derived precursors enter the thymus, proliferate, rearrange the genes and express the corresponding T cell receptors, and undergo positive and/or negative selection, ultimately yielding mature T cells that will represent the so-called T cell repertoire. This process occurs in the context of cell migration, whose cellular and molecular basis is still poorly understood. Kinetic studies favor the idea that these cells leave the organ in an ordered pattern, as if they were moving on a conveyor belt. We have recently proposed that extracellular matrix glycoproteins, such as fibronectin, laminin and type IV collagen, among others, produced by non-lymphoid cells both in the cortex and in the medulla, would constitute a macromolecular arrangement allowing differentiating thymocytes to migrate. Here we discuss the participation of both molecules with adhesive and de-adhesive properties in the intrathymic T cell migration. Functional experiments demonstrated that galectin-3, a soluble ß-galactoside-binding lectin secreted by thymic microenvironmental cells, is a likely candidate for de-adhesion proteins by decreasing thymocyte interaction with the thymic microenvironment.

Gap junction modulation by extracellular signaling molecules: the thymus model

Gap junctions are intercellular channels which connect adjacent cells and allow direct exchange of molecules of low molecular weight between them. Such a communication has been described as fundamental in many systems due to its importance in coordination, proliferation and differentiation. Recently, it has been shown that gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC) can be modulated by several extracellular soluble factors such as classical hormones, neurotransmitters, interleukins, growth factors and some paracrine substances. Herein, we discuss some aspects of the general modulation of GJIC by extracellular messenger molecules and more particularly the regulation of such communication in the thymus gland. Additionally, we discuss recent data concerning the study of different neuropeptides and hormones in the modulation of GJIC in thymic epithelial cells. We also suggest that the thymus may be viewed as a model to study the modulation of gap junction communication by different extracellular messengers involved in non-classical circuits, since this organ is under bidirectional neuroimmunoendocrine control.

Thymocyte migration: an affair of multiple cellular interactions?

Cell migration is a crucial event in the general process of thymocyte differentiation. The cellular interactions involved in the control of this migration are beginning to be defined. At least chemokines and extracellular matrix proteins appear to be part of the game. Cells of the thymic microenvironment produce these two groups of molecules, whereas developing thymocytes express the corresponding receptors. Moreover, although chemokines and extracellular matrix can drive thymocyte migration per se, a combined role for these molecules appears to contribute to the resulting migration patterns of thymocytes in their various stages of differentiation. The dynamics of chemokine and extracellular matrix production and degradation is not yet well understood. However, matrix metalloproteinases are likely to play a role in the breakdown of intrathymic extracellular matrix contents. Thus, the physiological migration of thymocytes should be envisioned as a resulting vector of multiple, simultaneous and/or sequential stimuli involving chemokines, adhesive and de-adhesive extracellular matrix proteins, as well as matrix metalloproteinases. Accordingly, it is conceivable that any pathological change in any of these loops may result in the alteration of normal thymocyte migration. This seems to be the case in murine infection by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas' disease. A better knowledge of the physiological mechanisms governing thymocyte migration will provide new clues for designing therapeutic strategies targeting developing T cells.

Le rôle de la MAPK non-conventionnelle ERK3 dans le développement thymique

Les premières cellules progénitrices lympho-myéloïdes (LMPP) entrent dans le thymus et commencent leur processus de différenciation au stade double négatif (DN, CD4-CD8-). Après un réarrangement fonctionnel de la chaine bêta de leur récepteur des cellules T (RCT), les cellules reçoivent des signaux de différenciation, de prolifération, de survie et de sélection et passent au stade double positif (DP, CD4+CD8+). Ensuite, la chaine alpha du RCT est réarrangée et testée via les sélections positive et négative. Si le RCT reçoit un signal ni trop fort, ni trop faible, les cellules passent au stade simple positif où elles exprimeront soit la molécule CD4 ou CD8. ERK3, une MAPK non-conventionnelle, joue un rôle important dans le développement thymique. Des études précédentes ont démontré qu’une déficience en ERK3 diminue de 50 % la cellularité thymique et de 75% le nombre de cellules simples positives CD4 (CD4SP). Nous avons posé comme hypothèses qu’il y a une augmentation de l’apoptose chez les thymocytes DP de souris Erk3-/- et que cette déficience chez les thymocytes DP affecterait la sélection positive des cellules DP, réduisant ainsi le nombre de thymocytes CD4SP. Afin de vérifier la première hypothèse, nous avons regardé les niveaux d’apoptose grâce à la cytométrie en flux et par immunohistochimie. Dans les deux cas, nous étions incapables de détecter une différence du niveau d’apoptose chez les thymocytes DP entre les souris Erk3+/+ et Erk3-/-. Ensuite, nous nous sommes posés la question suivante : La demi-vie des thymocytes DP Erk3-/- était-elle plus courte que le type sauvage? La demi-vie des thymocytes DP a été mesurée à l’aide de l’étude des réarrangements secondaires de la chaine alpha du RCT par PCR semi-quantitatif et à l’aide de cultures de thymus fœtaux. En effet, ERK3 semble important pour prolonger la demi-vie des thymocytes DP. Ensuite, nous avons utilisé des marqueurs cellulaires différentiels (CD69, CD5 et RCT) pour regarder si les thymocytes DP sont capables de passer la sélection positive. En effet, il y a moins de thymocytes DP Erk3-/- qui sont CD69fort, CD5fort et RCTfort. Finalement, nous voulons savoir si les fonctions de ERK3 passent par MK5, son seul partenaire d’interaction connu à ce jour. Après la caractérisation du thymus de la souris Mk5-/-, nous observons que seulement la réduction du nombre de thymocytes CD4SP est identique à celle des thymocytes CD4SP de la souris Erk3-/-. En conclusion, ces résultats révèlent des fonctions importantes pour la molécule ERK3 lors du processus de sélection positive, le maintient de la demi-vie des thymocytes DP et lors de la régulation de développement thymique de manière MK5-dépendante et -indépendante.

Role of EFNBs and EphB4 in T cell development and function

Eph kinases are the largest family of cell surface receptor tyrosine kinases. The ligands of Ephs, ephrins (EFNs), are also cell surface molecules. Ephs interact with EFNs and the receptors and ligands transmit signals in both directions, i.e., from Ephs to EFNs and from EFNs to Ephs. Ephs and EFNs are widely involved in various developmental, physiological pathophysiological processes. Our group and others have reported the roles of Ephs/EFNs in the immune system. To further investigate the function of EphBs/EFNBs in T cell development and responses, we generated EFNB1, EFNB2, EphB4 conditional gene knockout (KO) mice and EFNB1/2 double KO mice. In the projects using EFNB1 and EFNB2 knockout mice, we specifically deleted EFNB1 or EFNB2 in T cells. The mice had normal size and cellularity of the thymus and spleen as well as normal T cell subpopulations in these organs. The bone marrow progenitors from KO mice and WT mice repopulated the host lymphoid organs to similar extents. The activation and proliferation of KO T cells was comparable to that of control mice. Naïve KO CD4 cells differentiated into Th1, Th2, Th17 and Treg cells similar to naïve control CD4 cells. In EFNB2 KO mice, we observed a significant relative increase of CD4CD8 double negative thymocytes in the thymus. Flowcytometry analysis revealed that there was a moderate increase in the DN3 subpopulation in the thymus. This suggests that EFNB2 is involved in thymocyte development. Our results indicate that the functions of EFNB1 and EFNB2 in the T cell compartment could be compensated by each other or by other members of the EFN family, and that such redundancy safeguards the pivotal roles of EFNB1 and EFNB2 in T cell development and function. In the project using EFNB1/B2 double knockout (dKO) model, we revealed a novel regulatory function of EFNb1 and EFNb2 in stabilizing IL-7Rα expression on the T cell surface. IL-7 plays important roles in thymocyte development, T cell homeostasis and survival. IL-7Rα undergoes internalization upon IL-7 binding. In the dKO mice, we observed reduced IL-7Rα expression in thymocytes and T cells. Moreover, the IL-7Rα internalization was accelerated in dKO CD4 cells upon IL-7 stimulation. In T cell lymphoma cell line, EL4, over-expression of either EFNB1 or EFNB2 retarded the internalization of IL-7Rα. We further demonstrated compromised IL-7 signaling and homeostatic proliferation of dKO T cells. Mechanism study using fluorescence resonance energy transfer and immunoprecipitation demonstrated that physical interaction of EFNB1 and EFNB2 with IL-7Rα was likely responsible for the retarded IL-7Rα internalization. In the last project, using medullary thymic epithelial cell (mTEC)-specific EphB4 knockout mice, we investigated T cell development and function after EphB4 deletion in mTEC. EphB4 KO mice demonstrated normal thymic weight and cellularity. T cell development and function were not influenced by the EphB4 deletion. Lastly, the KO mice developed normal delayed type hypersensitivity. Overall, our results suggest that comprehensive cross interaction between Eph and EFN family members could compensate function of a given deleted member in the T cell development, and only simultaneous deletion of multiple EFNBs will reveal their true function in the immune system. In fact, such redundancy signifies vital roles of Ephs and EFNs in the immune system.

Découverte de cellules souches potentielles de l’épithélium thymique

Le thymus subit un vieillissement précoce, appelé involution thymique, qui cause une perte de fonction du thymus avec l’âge. À ce jour, les mécanismes de renouvellement des cellules épithéliales thymiques (TECs) sont encore mal compris, c’est pourquoi nous avons voulu identifier les cellules souches de l’épithélium thymique. Comme les cellules souches sont quiescentes dans plusieurs tissus, les objectifs de notre étude étaient de déterminer si l’épithélium thymique contenait des cellules quiescentes et d’étudier la cinétique de prolifération des TECs chez les souris jeunes et adultes. Pour ce faire, nous avons utilisé une souris transgénique (H2B-GFP Tet-On) nous permettant d’identifier les cellules ne se divisant pas sur une longue période de temps (LRC, label-retaining cells¬). Nous avons d’abord montré que les TECs proliféraient plus rapidement chez les femelles que les mâles. De plus, nous avons trouvé plusieurs différences entre l’épithélium thymique post-natal et adulte : (1) les TECs corticales (cTECs) et médullaires (mTECs) ont un taux de prolifération similaire chez les jeunes souris, mais chez l’adulte, les cTECs prolifèrent plus lentement que les mTECs; (2) les TECs prolifèrent plus rapidement chez les souris jeunes que adultes; (3) des LRC sont détectées chez l’adulte, mais pas chez les jeunes souris. Les LRC, retrouvées dans le compartiment cTEC, sous-expriment des gènes associés à la sénescence et surexpriment des gènes importants pour le développement et le renouvellement des TECs. Ces résultats montrent que ces cellules sont quiescentes et suggèrent qu’elles pourraient bel et bien être les progéniteurs thymiques responsables du renouvellement des TECs adultes.

The Autoimmune Regulator (AIRE), Which Is Defective in Autoimmune Polyendocrinopathy-Candidiasis-Ectodermal Dystrophy Patients, Is Expressed in Human Epidermal and Follicular Keratinocytes and Associates With the Intermediate Filament Protein Cytokeratin 17

Autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis-ectodermal dystrophy (APECED) syndrome, which is caused by mutation of the autoimmune regulator (AIRE) gene, is a highly variable disease characterized by multiple endocrine failure, chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis, and various ectodermal defects. AIRE is a transcriptional regulator classically expressed in medullary thymic epithelial cells, monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells. Previous studies have suggested that AIRE can shuttle between the nucleus and cytoplasm of cells, although its cytoplasmic functions are poorly characterized. Through mass spectrometry analysis of proteins co-immunoprecipitating with cytoplasmic AIRE, we identified a novel association of AIRE with the intermediate filament protein cytokeratin 17 (K17) in the THP-1 monocyte cell line. We confirmed AIRE expression in HaCaT epidermal keratinocytes, as well as its interaction with K17. Confocal microscopy of human fetal and adult scalp hair follicles demonstrated a cytoplasmic pattern of AIRE staining that moderately colocalized with K17. The cytoplasmic association of AIRE with the intermediate filament network in human epidermal and follicular keratinocytes may provide a new path to understanding the ectodermal abnormalities associated with the APECED syndrome. (Am J Pathol 2011, 178:983-988; DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2010.12.007)