Community-based Natural Resource Management: Issues and Cases from South Asia

Community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) is the joint management of natural resources by a community based on a community strategy, through a participatory mechanism involving all legitimate stakeholders. The approach is community-based in that the communities managing the resources have the legal rights, the local institutions and the economic incentives to take substantial responsibility for sustained use of these resources. This implies that the community plays an active role in the management of natural resources, not because it asserts sole ownership over them, but because it can claim participation in their management and benefits for practical and technical reasons1–4. This approach emerged as the dominant conservation concept in the late 1970s and early 1980s, of the disillusionment with the developmental state. Governments across South and South East Asia, Africa and Latin America have adopted and implemented CBNRM in various ways, viz. through sectoral programmes such as forestry, irrigation or wildlife management, multisectoral programmes such as watershed development and efforts towards political devolution. In India, the principle of decentralization through ‘gram swaraj’ was introduced by Mahatma Gandhi. The 73rd and 74th constitution amendments in 1992 gave impetus to the decentralized planning at panchayat levels through the creation of a statutory three-level local self-government structure5,6. The strength of this book is that it includes chapters by CBNRM advocates based on six seemingly innovative initiatives being implemented by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in ecologically vulnerable regions of South Asia: two in the Himalayas (watershed development programme in Lingmutechhu, Bhuthan and Thalisain tehsil, Paudi Grahwal District, Uttarakhand), three in semi-arid parts of western India (watershed development in Hivre Bazar, Maharashtra and Nathugadh village, Gujarat and water-harvesting structures in Gopalapura, Rajasthan) and one in the flood-plains of the Brahmaputra–Jamuna (Char land, Galibanda and Jamalpur districts, Bangladesh). Watersheds in semi-arid regions fall in the low-rainfall region (500–700 mm) and suffer the vagaries of drought 2–3 years in every five-year cycle. In all these locations, the major occupation is agriculture, most of which is rainfed or dry. The other two cases (in Uttarakhand) fall in the Himalayan region (temperate/sub-temperate climate), which has witnessed extensive deforestation in the last century and is now considered as one of the most vulnerable locations in South Asia. Terraced agriculture is being practised in these locations for a long time. The last case (Gono Chetona) falls in the Brahmaputra–Jamuna charlands which are the most ecologically vulnerable regions in the sub-continent with constantly changing landscape. Agriculture and livestock rearing are the main occupations, and there is substantial seasonal emigration for wage labour by the adult males. River erosion and floods force the people to adopt a semi-migratory lifestyle. The book attempts to analyse the potential as well as limitations of NGOdriven CBNRM endeavours across agroclimatic regions of South Asia with emphasis on four intrinsically linked normative concerns, namely sustainability, livelihood enhancement, equity and demographic decentralization in chapters 2–7. Comparative analysis of these case studies done in chapter 8, highlights the issues that require further research while portraying the strengths and limits of NGO-driven CBNRM. In Hivre Bazar, the post-watershed intervention scenario is such that farmers often grow three crops in a year – kharif bajra, rabi jowar and summer vegetable crops. Productivity has increased in the dry lands due to improvement in soil moisture levels. The revival of johads in Gopalpura has led to the proliferation of wheat and increased productivity. In Lingmuteychhu, productivity gains have also arisen, but more due to the introduction of both local and high-yielding, new varieties as opposed to increased water availability. In the case of Gono Chetona, improvements have come due to diversification of agriculture; for example, the promotion of vegetable gardens. CBNRM interventions in most cases have also led to new avenues of employment and income generation. The synthesis shows that CBNRM efforts have made significant contributions to livelihood enhancement and only limited gains in terms of collective action for sustainable and equitable access to benefits and continuing resource use, and in terms of democratic decentralization, contrary to the objectives of the programme. Livelihood benefits include improvements in availability of livelihood support resources (fuelwood, fodder, drinking water), increased productivity (including diversification of cropping pattern) in agriculture and allied activities, and new sources of livelihood. However, NGO-driven CBNRM has not met its goal of providing ‘alternative’ forms of ‘development’ due to impediments of state policy, short-sighted vision of implementers and confrontation with the socio-ecological reality of the region, which almost always are that of fragmented communities (or communities in flux) with unequal dependence and access to land and other natural resources along with great gender imbalances. Appalling, however, is the general absence of recognition of the importance of and the will to explore practical ways to bring about equitable resource transfer or benefit-sharing and the consequent innovations in this respect that are evident in the pioneering community initiatives such as pani panchayat, etc. Pertaining to the gains on the ecological sustainability front, Hivre Bazar and Thalisain initiatives through active participation of villagers have made significant regeneration of the water table within the village, and mechanisms such as ban on number of bore wells, the regulation of cropping pattern, restrictions on felling of trees and free grazing to ensure that in the future, the groundwater is neither over-exploited nor its recharge capability impaired. Nevertheless, the longterm sustainability of the interventions in the case of Ghoga and Gopalpura initiatives as the focus has been mostly on regeneration of resources, and less on regulating the use of regenerated resources. Further, in Lingmuteychhu and Gono Chetona, the interventions are mainly household-based and the focus has been less explicit on ecological components. The studies demonstrate the livelihood benefits to all of the interventions and significant variation in achievements with reference to sustainability, equity and democratic decentralization depending on the level and extent of community participation apart from the vision of implementers, strategy (or nature of intervention shaped by the question of community formation), the centrality of community formation and also the State policy. Case studies show that the influence of State policy is multi-faceted and often contradictory in nature. This necessitates NGOs to engage with the State in a much more purposeful way than in an ‘autonomous space’. Thus the role of NGOs in CBNRM is complementary, wherein they provide innovative experiments that the State can learn. This helps in achieving the goals of CBNRM through democratic decentralization. The book addresses the vital issues related to natural resource management and interests of the community. Key topics discussed throughout the book are still at the centre of the current debate. This compilation consists of well-written chapters based on rigorous synthesis of CBNRM case studies, which will serve as good references for students, researchers and practitioners in the years to come.

Micromorphology of lamellae formed in an alluvial soil, Big Pine Tree Archeological Site, South Carolina

The formation of lamellae in soils is not clearly understood. The objectives of this study are to examine the microscopical characteristics of selected well developed lamellae inorder to identify the major processes involved in their formation at the Big Pine Tree Archaeological site on the Savannah River, South Carolina. Well developed lamellae have formed in a fine sandy alluvial soil that is about 11,000 to 12,000 years old. In the field, these lamellae are observed as 1 to 4.2 cm thick horizontal layers having a smooth upper and a wavy, sometimes irregular, lower boundary with adjacent interlamellae horizons. Soil thin sections reveal denser accumulations of brown fine silt and clay coatings in the upper and lower sections of the lamellae. The center of the lamellae has mainly orange highly oriented discontinuous clay coatings bridging quartz grains and some silt accumulations. Although, horizontal layering of denser areas (accumulations of fine silt and clay coatings) is also observed in the middle of the lamellae. The interlamellae horizons are mainly loose quartz grains. Low total carbon values (

Observations on some birds procured near Charleston, South Carolina

This document contains notes on eight species of birds observed by Arthur T. Wayne in Charleston, South Carolina including the Horned Grebe, the Yellow-crowned Night Heron, Bachman’s Warbler, the Rocky Mountain Orange-crowned Warbler, the Cape May Warbler, the Black-poll Warbler, the Red-breasted Nuthatch, and the Blue-gray Gnatcatcher.

North Morlan Residence Hall, married student apartments, Chapman College, Orange, California

North Morlan Residence Hall, married student apartments, Chapman College, Orange, California. Dedicated November 20, 1963 and named in honor of Dr. Halford J. Morlan and Perwyn Bohrer Morlan. An addition, South Morlan, was dedicated December 1, 1965.

Morlan Residence Hall, married student apartments and dining hall, Chapman College, Orange, California

Morlan Residence Hall, married student apartments and dining hall, Chapman College, Orange, California. North Morlan, at the left, was dedicated November 20, 1963 and named in honor of Dr. Halford J. Morlan and Perwyn Bohrer Morlan. An addition, South Morlan, was dedicated December 1, 1965.

North Morlan Residence Hall, married student apartments, Chapman College, Orange, California

North Morlan Residence Hall, married student apartments and dining hall, Chapman College, Orange, California. Dedicated November 20, 1963 and named in honor of Dr. Halford J. Morlan and Perwyn Bohrer Morlan. An addition, South Morlan, was dedicated December 1, 1965.

Orange Union High School, Orange, California

Orange Union High School in Orange, California, ca. 1915. Elongated postcard image shows bird's-eye view looking southeast toward the campus. The original academic building in the center was designed by local architect C.B. Bradshaw and completed in July 1905 [now Wilkinson Hall]. The "Twins," identical buildings officially known as the Science and Commercial Buildings[now Reeves Hall and Smith Hall], flank the academic building on the north and south, forming a "U." They were added in 1913 and designed by Santa Ana architect Fred Eley. The 300 block of North Glassell Street runs in front of the buildings and East Palm Avenue is on the south side. Residences can be seen in front and behind the campus. The campus was purchased by Chapman College in 1954.

Orange Union High School, Orange, California

Orange Union High School in Orange, California, ca. 1915. Elongated postcard image shows bird's-eye view looking southeast toward the campus. The original academic building in the center was designed by local architect C.B. Bradshaw and completed in July 1905 [now Wilkinson Hall]. The "Twins," identical buildings officially known as the Science and Commercial Buildings[now Reeves Hall and Smith Hall], flank the academic building on the north and south, forming a "U." They were added in 1913 and designed by Santa Ana architect Fred Eley. The 300 block of North Glassell Street runs in front of the buildings and East Palm Avenue is on the south side. Residences can be seen in front and behind the campus. The campus was purchased in 1954 by Chapman College.

Smith Hall, Chapman University, Orange, California

Looking south to Smith Hall, Chapman College, Orange, California. This building was completed in 1913 as the Science Building for Orange Union High School and was acquired by Chapman in 1954. In 1988 it was named in honor of former president G.T. (Buck) Smith and his wife, Joni. Buck Smith served as president of the university from 1977 to 1988. This building (2 floors, basement, 15,263 sq.ft.) houses the Psychology Department and is listed in the National Registry for Historical Buildings.

Smith Hall, Chapman University, Orange, California

Looking south to front of Smith Hall, Chapman College, Orange, California. This building was completed in 1913 as the Science Building for Orange Union High School and was acquired by Chapman in 1954. In 1988 it was named in honor of former president G.T. (Buck) Smith and his wife, Joni. Buck Smith served as president of the university from 1977 to 1988. This building (2 floors, basement, 15,263 sq.ft.) houses the Psychology Department and is listed in the National Registry for Historical Buildings.

First building of Orange Union High School, Orange, California, now Wilkinson Hall, Chapman University

Orange Union High School, located at 333 N. Glassell Street, Orange, California, 1905. Constructed in 1905 and designed by local architect, C.B. Bradshaw, image shows main building, now called Wilkinson Hall, which moved north prior to 1921. Acquired in 1954 and currently operated by Chapman University; it was renamed Wilkinson Hall in honor of J. E. Wilkinson, a former trustee, chairman of the board, and acting president. View shows front and south elevations across North Glassell Street.

Second Welland Canal - Book 3, Survey Map 20 - Village of Port Colborne

Survey map of the Second Welland Canal created by the Welland Canal Company showing the areas in and around Port Colborne and Grantham Township. Identified structures associated with the Canal include Basin, Guard Lock, Two Lock Tender Houses, Lock House Lot, Collectors Office House, Towing Path, North and South Back Ditches, and land reserved for future improvemnt of basin. Surveyor measurements and notes can be seen in red and black ink as well as pencil. Local area landmarks dentified include Bridge, Rail Road Swing Bridge, Spoil Bank, Water Tank, Frazer Street Railway Station, Buffalo and Lake Huron Rail Road, Welland Rail Road, and land reserved for "Gardens for Lock Tenders". Local businesses identified include A.K Scholfield Store House Lot and Wharf, two stores and a tavern. Roads running parallel to Canal include King St., "present Travel Road", and the Southern Road Allowance. Roads running perpendicular to Canal include Kent St., Charlotte St., Clarence St., Princess St., Elgin St., George St., Frazer St., Alma St., Eastern Road Allowance. Properties and property owners are also identified and include P. White, John Flynn, George McMicking, Charles Carter, William H. Merritt, A.K. Scholfield, F. Gallgher, Ed McCabe, M. Smith, E. Lawder, J. Hanley, J. Harris, P. Gibbons, M. McGoveran, M. Madden, J. Hardison, T. Nihan, D. Gibbons, J. Cross, William Mellanby, Elis Gordon, Jane McCardy, L.G. Carter, T. Greenwood, C. Armstrong, J. McGillivray, T. Schofield, Mrs. Lanue, D. Mc_______, K. Minor, J. Manly and John McRae.

Adaptation to climate change and variability: farmer responses to intra-seasonal precipitation trends in South Africa

We describe the nature of recent (50 year) rainfall variability in the summer rainfall zone, South Africa, and how variability is recognised and responded to on the ground by farmers. Using daily rainfall data and self-organising mapping (SOM) we identify 12 internally homogeneous rainfall regions displaying differing parameters of precipitation change. Three regions, characterised by changing onset and timing of rains, rainfall frequencies and intensities, in Limpopo, North West and KwaZulu Natal provinces, were selected to investigate farmer perceptions of, and responses to, rainfall parameter changes. Village and household level analyses demonstrate that the trends and variabilities in precipitation parameters differentiated by the SOM analysis were clearly recognised by people living in the areas in which they occurred. A range of specific coping and adaptation strategies are employed by farmers to respond to climate shifts, some generic across regions and some facilitated by specific local factors. The study has begun to understand the complexity of coping and adaptation, and the factors that influence the decisions that are taken.

Isolation of Staphylococcus epidermidis from inflamed upper respiratory tract of an orange-spined hairy dwarf porcupine (Sphiggurus villosus)

The orange-spined hairy dwarf porcupine (Sphiggurus villosus) is a rodent species common in most parts of South America, and little is known about the pathologies that can afflict it. A specimen was delivered at the Wildlife Research and Medical Center (CEMPAS), School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, UNESP, Botucatu, SP, Brazil. The animal showed intense apathy, with purulent secretion in the nasal cavity and fracture of the lumbar spine. Due to the unfavorable prognosis, the porcupine was euthanized and microbiological culture of nasal discharge showed Staphylococcus epidermidis. The antimicrobial resistance test revealed sensitivity to all tested antimicrobials (ampicillin, oxacillin, tetracycline, penicillin G, neomycin, cephalexin, gentamicin, enrofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, cotrimoxazol, cefoxitin and cephalothin). This bacterium is part of the nasal flora of humans and other animals, and may cause infection under certain conditions. In the present study, the infection and colonization by S. epidermidis was the probable cause of the inflammatory process. The sensitivity to all tested antimicrobials suggests that this strain has not been previously exposed to such drugs.

Presence of Xylella fastidiosa in sweet orange fruit and seeds and its transmission to seedlings

Xylella fastidiosa, a xylem-limited bacterium, causes several economically important diseases in North, Central, and South America. These diseases are transmitted by sharpshooter insects, contaminated budwood, and natural root-grafts. X. fastidiosa extensively colonizes the xylem vessels of susceptible plants. Citrus fruit have a well-developed vascular system, which is continuous with the vascular system of the plant. Citrus seeds develop very prominent vascular bundles, which are attached through ovular and seed bundles to the xylem system of the fruit. Sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) fruit of cvs. Pera, Natal, and Valencia with characteristic symptoms of citrus variegated chlorosis disease were collected for analysis. X. fastidiosa was detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in all main fruit vascular bundles, as well as in the seed and in dissected seed parts. No visual abnormalities were observed in seeds infected with the bacterium. However, the embryos of the infected seeds weighed 25% less than those of healthy seeds, and their germination rate was lower than uninfected seeds. There were about 2,500 cells of X. fastidiosa per infected seed of sweet orange, as quantified using real-time PCR techniques. The identification of X. fastidiosa in the infected seeds was confirmed by cloning and sequencing the specific amplification product, obtained by standard PCR with specific primers. X. fastidiosa was also detected in and recovered from seedlings by isolation in vitro. Our results show that X. fastidiosa can infect and colonize fruit tissues including the seed. We also have shown that X. fastidiosa can be transmitted from seeds to seedlings of sweet orange. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the presence of X. fastidiosa in seeds and its transmission to seedlings.