Hemorheological and Glycemic Parameters and HDL Cholesterol for the Prediction of Cardiovascular Events

Abstract Background: Hemorheological and glycemic parameters and high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol are used as biomarkers of atherosclerosis and thrombosis. Objective: To investigate the association and clinical relevance of erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), fibrinogen, fasting glucose, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), and HDL cholesterol in the prediction of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) and coronary heart disease (CHD) in an outpatient population. Methods: 708 stable patients who visited the outpatient department were enrolled and followed for a mean period of 28.5 months. Patients were divided into two groups, patients without MACE and patients with MACE, which included cardiac death, acute myocardial infarction, newly diagnosed CHD, and cerebral vascular accident. We compared hemorheological and glycemic parameters and lipid profiles between the groups. Results: Patients with MACE had significantly higher ESR, fibrinogen, fasting glucose, and HbA1c, while lower HDL cholesterol compared with patients without MACE. High ESR and fibrinogen and low HDL cholesterol significantly increased the risk of MACE in multivariate regression analysis. In patients with MACE, high fibrinogen and HbA1c levels increased the risk of multivessel CHD. Furthermore, ESR and fibrinogen were significantly positively correlated with HbA1c and negatively correlated with HDL cholesterol, however not correlated with fasting glucose. Conclusion: Hemorheological abnormalities, poor glycemic control, and low HDL cholesterol are correlated with each other and could serve as simple and useful surrogate markers and predictors for MACE and CHD in outpatients.

Role of disease activity for decision making ability in early multiple sclerosis

Background and purpose: Decision making (DM) has been defined as the process through which a person forms preferences, selects and executes actions, and evaluates the outcome related to a selected choice. This ability represents an important factor for adequate behaviour in everyday life. DM impairment in multiple sclerosis (MS) has been previously reported. The purpose of the present study was to assess DM in patients with MS at the earliest clinically detectable time point of the disease. Methods: Patients with definite (n=109) or possible (clinically isolated syndrome, CIS; n=56) MS, a short disease duration (mean 2.3 years) and a minor neurological disability (mean EDSS 1.8) were compared to 50 healthy controls aged 18 to 60 years (mean age 32.2) using the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). Subjects had to select a card from any of 4 decks (A/B [disadvantageous]; C/D [advantageous]). The game consisted of 100 trials then grouped in blocks of 20 cards for data analysis. Skill in DM was assessed by means of a learning index (LI) defined as the difference between the averaged last three block indexes and first two block indexes (LI=[(BI-3+BI-4+BI-5)/3-(BI-1+B2)/2]). Non parametric tests were used for statistical analysis. Results: LI was higher in the control group (0.24, SD 0.44) than in the MS group (0.21, SD 0.38), however without reaching statistical significance (p=0.7). Interesting differences were detected when MS patients were grouped according to phenotype. A trend to a difference between MS subgroups and controls was observed for LI (p=0.06), which became significant between MS subgroups (p=0.03). CIS patients who confirmed MS diagnosis by presenting a second relapse after study entry showed a dysfunction in the IGT in comparison to the other CIS (p=0.01) and definite MS (p=0.04) patients. In the opposite, CIS patients characterised by not entirely fulfilled McDonald criteria at inclusion and absence of relapse during the study showed an normal learning pattern on the IGT. Finally, comparing MS patients who developed relapses after study entry, those who remained clinically stable and controls, we observed impaired performances only in relapsing patients in comparison to stable patients (p=0.008) and controls (p=0.03). Discussion: These results raise the assumption of a sustained role for both MS relapsing activity and disease heterogeneity (i.e. infra-clinical severity or activity of MS) in the impaired process of decision making.

The presence of a CD4+ CD25high CD45RO+ CD127high T-cell population correlates with the clinical status of kidney transplant recipients

Background: Recent data have suggested that a population of CD4+ CD25high T cells, phenotypically characterized by the expression of CD45RO and CD127, is significantly expanded in stable liver and kidney transplant recipients and represents alloreactive T cells. We analyzed this putative new alloreactive cellular marker in various groups of kidney transplant recipients. Patients and methods: Flow cytometry was used to analyze the expression of CD25, CD45RO and CD127 on peripheral CD4+ T cells. Of 73 kidney recipients, 59 had a stable graft function under standard immunosuppressive therapy (IS), 5 had biopsy-proven chronic humoral rejection (CHR), 8 were stable under minimal IS and one was an operationally "tolerant" patient who had discontinued IS for more than 3 years. Sixty-six healthy subjects (HS) were studied as controls. Results: Overall, the alloreactive T cell population was found to be significantly increased in the 73 kidney recipients (mean ± SE: 15.03 ± 1.04% of CD4+ CD25high T cells) compared to HS (5.93 ± 0.39%) (p <0.001). In the 5 patients with CHR, this population was highly expanded (31.33 ± 4.16%), whereas it was comparable to HS in the 8 stable recipients receiving minimal IS (6.12 ± 0.86%), in 4 patients who had been switched to sirolimus (4.21 ± 0.53%) as well as in the unique "tolerant" recipient (4.69%). Intermediate levels (15.84 ± 0.93%) were found in the 55 recipients with stable graft function on standard CNI-based IS. Regulatory T cells, defined as CD4+ CD25high FoxP3+ CD127low, were found to be significantly reduced in all recipients except in those with minimal or no IS, and this reduction was particularly striking in recipients with CHR. Conclusion: After kidney transplantation, an alloreactive T cell population was found to be significantly expanded and it correlates with the clinical status of the recipients. Interestingly, in stable patients with minimal (or no) IS as well as in patients on sirolimus, alloreactive T cells were comparable the healthy controls. Measuring circulating CD4+ CD25high CD45RO+ CD127high T cells may become a useful monitoring tool after transplantation.

Advanced age increases the failure rate of non-operative management of blunt splenic injuries

Introduction: Non-operative management (NOM) of blunt splenic injuries in hemodynamically stable patients is nowadays considered the standard treatment. Material and Methods: The aim was to clarify the criteria used for primary operative management (OM) and planned NOM. Furthermore, the study aimed to identify risk factors for failure of NOM. All adult patients with blunt splenic injuries treated from 2000-2008 were reviewed and a logistic regression analysis employed. Results: There were 206 patients (146 men, 70.9%). Mean age was 38.2 ± 19.1 years. The mean Injury Severity Score (ISS) was 30.9 ± 11.6. The American Association for the Surgery of Trauma (AAST) classification of the splenic injury was: grade I, n = 43 (20.9%); grade II, n = 52 (25.2%); grade III, n = 60 (29.1%), grade IV, n = 42 (20.4%) and grade V, n = 9 (4.4%). 47 patients (22.8%) required immediate surgery (OM). More than 5 units of red cell transfusions (odds ratio [OR] 13.72, P < 0.001), a Glasgow Coma Scale < 11 (OR 9.88, P = 0.009) and age ? 55 years (OR 3.29, P = 0.038) were associated with primary OM. 159 patients (77.2%) qualified for a non-surgical approach (NOM), which was successful in 89.9% (143/159). The overall splenic salvage rate amounted to 69.4% (143/206). Multiple logistic regression analysis found age ? 40 years to be the only factor significantly and independently related to the failure of NOM (OR 13.58, P = 0.001). Conclusion: Advanced age is associated with an increased failure rate of NOM in patients with blunt splenic injuries.

The presence of a CD4(+) CD25(high) CD45RO(+) CD127(high) T cell population correlates with the clinical status of kidney transplant recipients

Introduction: Recent data have suggested that a population of CD4+ CD25high T cells, phenotypically characterized by the expression of CD45RO and CD127, is significantly expanded in stable liver and kidney transplant recipients and represents alloreactive T cells. We analyzed this putative new alloreactive cellular marker in various groups of kidney transplant recipients. Patients & methods: Flow cytometry was used to analyze the expression of CD25, CD45RO and CD127 on peripheral CD4+ T cells. Of 73 kidney transplant recipients, 59 had a stable graft function under standard immunosuppressive therapy (IS), 5 had biopsy-proven chronic humoral rejection (CHR), 8 were stable under minimal IS and one was an operationally "tolerant" patient who had discontinued IS for more than 3 years. Sixty-six healthy subjects (HS) were studied as controls. Results: Overall, the alloreactive T cell population was found to be significantly increased in the 73 kidney recipients (mean ± SE: 15.03 ± 1.04% of CD4+ CD25high T cells) compared to HS (5.93 ± 0.39%) (p<0.001). In the 5 patients with CHR, this population was highly expanded (31.33 ± 4.16%), whereas it was comparable to HS in the 8 stable recipients receiving minimal IS (6.12 ± 0.86%), in 4 patients who had been switched to sirolimus (4.21 ± 0.53%) as well as in the unique "tolerant" recipient (4.69%). Intermediate levels (15.84 ± 0.93%) were found in the 55 recipients with stable graft function on standard CNI-based IS. Regulatory T cells, defined as CD4+CD25high FoxP3+ CD127low, were found to be significantly reduced in all recipients except in those with minimal or no IS, and this reduction was particularly striking in recipients with CHR. Conclusion: After kidney transplantation, an alloreactive T cell population was found to be significantly expanded and it correlates with the clinical status of the recipients. Interestingly, in stable patients with minimal (or no) IS as well as in patients on sirolimus, alloreactive T cells were comparable the healthy controls. Measuring circulating CD4+CD25high CD45RO+ CD127high T cells may become a useful monitoring tool after transplantation.

Management of severe blunt hepatic injury in the era of computed tomography and transarterial embolization: A systematic review and critical appraisal of the literature.

BACKGROUND: During the last decade, the management of blunt hepatic injury has considerably changed. Three options are available as follows: nonoperative management (NOM), transarterial embolization (TAE), and surgery. We aimed to evaluate in a systematic review the current practice and outcomes in the management of Grade III to V blunt hepatic injury. METHOD: The MEDLINE database was searched using PubMed to identify English-language citations published after 2000 using the key words blunt, hepatic injury, severe, and grade III to V in different combinations. Liver injury was graded according to the American Association for the Surgery of Trauma classification on computed tomography (CT). Primary outcome analyzed was success rate in intention to treat. Critical appraisal of the literature was performed using the validated National Institute for Health and Care Excellence "Quality Assessment for Case Series" system. RESULTS: Twelve articles were selected for critical appraisal (n = 4,946 patients). The median quality score of articles was 4 of 8 (range, 2-6). Overall, the median Injury Severity Score (ISS) at admission was 26 (range, 0.6-75). A median of 66% (range, 0-100%) of patients was managed with NOM, with a success rate of 94% (range, 86-100%). TAE was used in only 3% of cases (range, 0-72%) owing to contrast extravasation on CT with a success rate of 93% (range, 81-100%); however, 9% to 30% of patients required a laparotomy. Thirty-one percent (range, 17-100%) of patients were managed with surgery owing to hemodynamic instability in most cases, with 12% to 28% requiring secondary TAE to control recurrent hepatic bleeding. Mortality was 5% (range, 0-8%) after NOM and 51% (range, 30-68%) after surgery. CONCLUSION: NOM of Grade III to V blunt hepatic injury is the first treatment option to manage hemodynamically stable patients. TAE and surgery are considered in a highly selective group of patients with contrast extravasation on CT or shock at admission, respectively. Additional standardization of the reports is necessary to allow accurate comparisons of the various management strategies. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Systematic review, level IV.

Videolaparoscopia no trauma abdominal

Despite the use of laparoscopy in abdominal trauma for several decades, it was only after the advent of video chip camera that an explosion of interest ocurred, giving rise to possibilities and perspectives not only in diagnosis but also in therapeutics. In trauma, its use has been gradually defined and experience has shown the benefits of the method in early diagnosis of visceral injuries as well as avoiding unnecessary laparotomies. Trauma laparoscopy is a safe method, can reduce negative and nontherapeutic laparotomies. The worrisome failure of laparoscopy to detect gastrintestinal injuries, specially small bowel lesions can be avoided with a mandatory and apropriated "run bowel" exploration. We believe that in hemodinamically stable patients, video laparoscopy is safely indicated in some situations in trauma, such as evaluation of diaphragmatic injuries in thoraco abdominal stab wounds and tangential gunshot wounds of anterior abdominal wall.

Interrelationship between serum and sputum inflammatory mediators in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Little is known about airway inflammatory markers in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The objective of the present study was to identify and try to correlate pulmonary and peripheral blood inflammatory markers in COPD. In a cross-sectional study on patients with stable COPD, induced sputum and blood samples were collected for the determination of C-reactive protein, eosinophilic cationic protein, serum amyloid A protein, a-1 antitrypsin (a-1AT), and neutrophil elastase. Twenty-two patients were divided into two groups according to post-bronchodilator forced expiratory volume in the first second (%FEV1): group 1 (N = 12, FEV1 <40%) and group 2 (N = 10, FEV1 ³40%). An increase in serum elastase, eosinophilic cationic protein and a-1AT was observed in serum markers in both groups. Cytology revealed the same total number of cells in groups 1 and 2. There was a significantly higher number of neutrophils in group 1 compared to group 2 (P < 0.05). No difference in eosinophils or macrophages was observed between groups. Serum elastase was positively correlated with serum a-1AT (group 1, r = 0.81, P < 0.002 and group 2, r = 0.83, P < 0.17) and negatively correlated with FEV1 (r = -0.85, P < 0.03 and -0.14, P < 0.85, respectively). The results indicate the presence of chronic and persistent pulmonary inflammation in stable patients with COPD. Induced sputum permitted the demonstration of the existence of a subpopulation of cells in which neutrophils predominated. The serum concentration of all inflammatory markers did not correlate with the pulmonary functional impairment.

Relationship of macrophage migration inhibitory factor levels in PBMCs, lesional skin and serum with disease severity and activity in vitiligo vulgaris

Melanocyte loss in vitiligo vulgaris is believed to be an autoimmune process. Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) is involved in many autoimmune skin diseases. We determined the possible role of MIF in the pathogenesis of vitiligo vulgaris, and describe the relationship between MIF expressions and disease severity and activity. Serum MIF concentrations and mRNA levels in PBMCs were measured in 44 vitiligo vulgaris patients and 32 normal controls, using ELISA and real-time RT-PCR. Skin biopsies from 15 patients and 6 controls were analyzed by real-time RT-PCR. Values are reported as median (25th-75th percentile). Serum MIF concentrations were significantly increased in patients [35.81 (10.98-43.66) ng/mL] compared to controls [7.69 (6.01-9.03) ng/mL]. MIF mRNA levels were significantly higher in PBMCs from patients [7.17 (3.59-8.87)] than controls [1.67 (1.23-2.42)]. There was also a significant difference in MIF mRNA levels in PBMCs between progressive and stable patients [7.86 (5.85-9.13)vs 4.33 (2.23-8.39)] and in serum MIF concentrations [40.47 (27.71-46.79) vs 26.80 (10.55-36.07) ng/mL]. In addition, the vitiligo area severity index scores of patients correlated positively with changes of both serum MIF concentrations (r = 0.488) and MIF mRNA levels in PBMCs (r = 0.426). MIF mRNA levels were significantly higher in lesional than in normal skin [2.43 (2.13-7.59)vs 1.18 (0.94-1.83)] and in patients in the progressive stage than in the stable stage [7.52 (2.43-8.84)vs 2.13 (1.98-2.64)]. These correlations suggest that MIF participates in the pathogenesis of vitiligo vulgaris and may be useful as an index of disease severity and activity.

Avaliação da reprodutibilidade dos parâmetros de adequação da hemodiálise crônica

Justificativa: Doses inadequadas de diálise estão associadas a maior morbidade e mortalidade em pacientes com uremia terminal em tratamento hemodialítico. Atualmente os métodos mais utilizados para medir a adequação da hemodiálise baseiam-se no cálculo da depuração fracional de uréia (Kt/V) e da taxa de redução da uréia (URR). Nesse estudo avaliou-se a reprodutibilidade do Kt/V e da URR e analisou-se o número aceitável de medidas mensais destes parâmetros para determinar de forma fidedigna a adequação da hemodiálise. Métodos: Avaliamos 43 pacientes clinicamente estáveis, em cinco sessões de hemodiálise (sessões 1 a 5), durante três semanas. Três diálises consecutivas na primeira semana (sessões 1, 2, 3) e duas sessões de meio de semana, nas duas semanas subseqüentes (sessões 4 e 5). Resultados: Não houve diferença entre a média dos Kt/Vs obtidos em diálises seqüenciais (1, 2 e 3) comparada a média dos Kt/Vs obtidos em diálises no meio da semana (2, 4 e 5). O mesmo aconteceu com a URR e com os coeficientes de variação do Kt/V e da URR. Também não encontramos diferença entre uma medida mensal (Kt/V 2) e três medidas mensais (média dos Kt/Vs 2, 4 e 5). O mesmo ocorreu com a URR. A diferença entre o Kt/V 2 e a média dos Kt/Vs 2, 4 e 5 foi de – 0,02 unidades e entre a URR 2 em relação a média das URRs 2, 4 e 5 foi de – 0,5%. Além disso, se fizermos apenas uma medida mensal (Kt/V 2) 80% dos pacientes estarão a uma distância de no máximo 0,16 unidades abaixo da média dos Kt/Vs 2, 4 e 5 e no máximo 0,12 unidades acima. Em relação a URR 80% dos pacientes estarão a uma distância de no máximo 4,37% abaixo da média das URRs 2, 4 e 5 e no máximo 3,37% acima. O grau de concordância entre o Kt/V 2 e a média dos Kt/Vs 2, 4 e 5 é bom para pontos de corte do Kt/V igual ou superior a 1,3. No caso da URR a concordância é boa para pontos de corte acima de 65%. Conclusão: Concluímos que nesta população de pacientes clinicamente estáveis os parâmetros de adequação da hemodiálise mostraram-se reprodutíveis não havendo necessidade de aumentar o número de medidas mensais da quantidade de diálise ofertada.

Excessiva atividade de remodelamento ventricular sinaliza limitada resposta terapêutica ao manejo agressivo da insuficiência cardíaca avanaçada

Introdução: Níveis de fator de necrose tumoral–alfa (TNF-α), N-peptídeo do pró-colágeno III (PIIINP) e metaloproteinase de matriz –1 (MMP-1), marcadores biológicos de remodelamento ventricular, estão elevados em pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca (IC), talvez refletindo elevadas pressões de enchimento. A correlação destes marcadores com variáveis clínicas e hemodinâmicas permanece pouco compreendida, particularmente no contexto ambulatorial da IC. Objetivo: Avaliar níveis séricos de marcadores biológicos de remodelamento ventricular em pacientes com IC, comparando tratamento guiado por ecocardiografia (ECO), buscando redução de pressões de enchimento, versus tratamento convencional (CLÍNICO), baseado em sinais e sintomas. Métodos: Ensaio clínico randomizado. Pacientes estáveis com IC e fração de ejeção menor do que 40% foram alocados entre os grupos de tratamento e submetidos a ecocardiograma e coletas de sangue no início do estudo e em 180 dias. TNF-α e MMP- 1 foram medidos por ELISA, e PIIINP, por radioimunoensaio. Resultados: Incluiu-se 80 pacientes, com 59 ± 15 anos e fração de ejeção de 26 ± 7%; 25% isquêmicos e 52% masculinos. Houve redução dos marcadores biológicos intragrupos, não havendo diferença entre os tratamentos. No grupo CLÍNICO, os níveis de TNF-α, MMP-1 e PIIINP apresentaram diferenças estatisticamente significativas entre os momentos basal e final (respectivamente, 3,11 ± 2,90 versus 1,24 ± 0,60 pg/mL p < 0,0003; 2,66 ± 1,00 versus 1,16 ± 0,40 ng/mL p < 0,0001; 6,12 ± 2,60 versus 3,89 ± 1,60 μg/L p < 0,0001). De maneira semelhante, tal diferença também foi observada no grupo ECO para os três marcadores (respectivamente, 3,90 ± 4,90 versus 1,40 ± 1,30 pg/mL p < 0,0001; 2,50 ± 0,90 versus 1,09 ± 0,40 ng/mL p < 0,0001; 6,09 ± 2,60 versus 3,50 ± 1,30 μg/L p<0,0001). Ao final da intervenção, no entanto, não foi observada diferença significativa dos valores de TNF-α , MMP-1 e PIIINP entre os dois grupos de tratamento (p = 0,7; p = 0,8; e p = 0,2; respectivamente). A combinação dos valores basais das variáveis biológicas gerou um escore que se associou significativamente com o comportamento final das pressões atrial direita e sistólica da artéria pulmonar. Pacientes com marcadores biológicos basais no quartil 75% mantiveram níveis superiores de pressões atrial direita (13 mmHg; p = 0,034) e sistólica de artéria pulmonar (60 mmHg; p = 0,007) ao final do seguimento. Conclusão: Independente do tratamento alocado, houve redução dos níveis de marcadores biológicos ao final do seguimento; no entanto, níveis basais mais elevados destes marcadores foram preditores de menor redução das pressões em átrio direito e sistólica da artéria pulmonar. Os dados sugerem que indicativos de intenso processo de remodelamento ventricular se associam à progressão da IC e a pressões de enchimento elevadas.

Influência da técnica de pressão expiratória positiva oscilante utilizando pressões expiratórias pré-determinadas na viscosidade e na transportabilidade do escarro em pacientes com bronquiectasia

OBJETIVO: Verificar a efetividade da técnica de pressão expiratória positiva oscilante (PEPO) utilizando pressões expiratórias pré-determinadas sobre a viscosidade e a transportabilidade do escarro em pacientes com bronquiectasia. MÉTODOS: Foram incluídos no estudo 15 pacientes estáveis com bronquiectasia (7 homens; média de idade = 53 ± 16 anos), submetidos a duas intervenções PEPO consecutivas, com 24 h de intervalo entre si, utilizando pressões expiratórias de 15 cmH2O (P15) e 25 cmH2O (P25). O protocolo consistiu de tosse voluntária; nova expectoração voluntária após 20 min, denominado tempo zero (T0); repouso de 10 min; e utilização da técnica em duas séries de 10 min (S1 e S2) de PEPO em P15 e P25, com intervalo de 10 min entre si. A viscosidade e transportabilidade do escarro foram avaliadas pela viscosimetria, velocidade relativa de transporte no palato de rã, deslocamento em máquina simuladora de tosse e ângulo de adesão. As amostras de escarro foram coletadas em T0, após S1 e após S2. Testes estatísticos específicos foram aplicados de acordo com a distribuição dos dados. RESULTADOS: Houve diminuição significante da viscosidade do escarro após S1 em P15 e após S2 em P25. Não houve diferenças significantes entre todas as amostras para a transportabilidade. CONCLUSÕES: Houve diminuição da viscosidade do escarro quando a PEPO foi realizada em P15 e P25, o que sugere que não seja necessário gerar alta pressão expiratória para obter o resultado desejado.

BODE Index and GOLD Staging as Predictors of 1-Year Exacerbation Risk in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Avaliação de aspectos da qualidade de vida em pacientes pós-implante de marca-passo cardíaco

Objetivo: Avaliar aspectos da qualidade de vida em pacientes pós-implante de marca-passo e relacionar com gênero, idade e tempo de implante. Métodos: Foram estudados 107 indivíduos de ambos os gêneros (49,5% do sexo feminino e 50,5% do sexo masculino), tempo de implante três a 12 meses (média de 6,36±2,99 meses), estáveis clinicamente com idade acima de 18 anos (média de 69,3±12,6 anos). A avaliação constou de: dados pessoais, clínicos, do implante e questionários de qualidade de vida (AQUAREL e SF-36). Análise estatística empregou teste t e correlação de Pearson, com significância de 5%. Resultados: No SF-36, o menor escore ocorreu no domínio aspectos físicos e o maior, em aspectos sociais. No AQUAREL, o menor escore foi em dispneia e o maior em desconforto. Verificou-se associação significante entre gênero e qualidade de vida no SF-36 (capacidade funcional e aspectos emocionais) e no AQUAREL (dispneia). Observaram-se correlações negativas entre idade e qualidade de vida (capacidade funcional do SF-36 e em desconforto do AQUAREL) em relação ao tempo de implante, correlação com vitalidade do SF-36. Conclusão: Menores escores de qualidade de vida foram encontrados em aspectos físicos e dispneia; maiores em aspectos sociais e desconforto. Homens apresentaram maiores escores de qualidade de vida em capacidade funcional, aspectos emocionais e dispneia. Conforme aumenta a idade, pior é a qualidade de vida em capacidade funcional e desconforto, e, quanto maior o tempo de implante de marca-passo, pior a qualidade de vida em vitalidade. Gênero, idade e tempo de implante influenciam na qualidade de vida, dessa forma, essas variáveis devem ser consideradas nas estratégias para melhora da qualidade de vida em portadores de marca-passo.

[Acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding--an evidence-based algorithm for diagnosis and treatment]

Novel means to locate and treat lower gastrointestinal bleeding (lGB) allow to reduce the rate of required surgical interventions and help to limit the extend of resection. The risk stratification of patients with lGB is the primary step of our recommended treatment algorithm. Accordingly, risk stratifying instruments, which are only partly validated up to now, are gaining significance in lGB. Whereas, gastro-duodenoscopy and colonoscopy prior to angiography or scintigraphy are established diagnostic tools, capsule enteroscopy offers a novel approach to hemodynamic stable patients with lGB that are difficult to localize. With its every increasing sensitivity, Angio-Computer Tomography is likely to replace scintigraphy and diagnostic angiography in the very near future. In addition, recent advances in superselective microembolisation have been shown to have the potential rendering surgical interventions in a majority of patients with acute lGB unnecessary. The extend of required surgical resection is largely dependent on the success to localize the bleeding source of prior diagnostics. Only if the source is identified, a limited segmental resection should be performed. Should surgery be required, we suggest to maintain the effort to localize the bleeding, either by prior laparoscopy and/or by intraoperative entero-colonoscopy. Eventually, if the source of bleeding remains unclear total colectomy with ileorectal anastomosis represents the procedure of choice in patients with acute lGB.