An Essential Role for Insulin and IGF1 Receptors in Regulating Sertoli Cell Proliferation, Testis Size, and FSH Action in Mice.

Testis size and sperm production are directly correlated to the total number of adult Sertoli cells (SCs). Although the establishment of an adequate number of SCs is crucial for future male fertility, the identification and characterization of the factors regulating SC survival, proliferation, and maturation remain incomplete. To investigate whether the IGF system is required for germ cell (GC) and SC development and function, we inactivated the insulin receptor (Insr), the IGF1 receptor (Igf1r), or both receptors specifically in the GC lineage or in SCs. Whereas ablation of insulin/IGF signaling appears dispensable for GCs and spermatogenesis, adult testes of mice lacking both Insr and Igf1r in SCs (SC-Insr;Igf1r) displayed a 75% reduction in testis size and daily sperm production as a result of a reduced proliferation rate of immature SCs during the late fetal and early neonatal testicular period. In addition, in vivo analyses revealed that FSH requires the insulin/IGF signaling pathway to mediate its proliferative effects on immature SCs. Collectively, these results emphasize the essential role played by growth factors of the insulin family in regulating the final number of SCs, testis size, and daily sperm output. They also indicate that the insulin/IGF signaling pathway is required for FSH-mediated SC proliferation.

Male mutation bias and possible long-term effects of human activities.

The ability of a population to adapt to changing environments depends critically on the amount and kind of genetic variability it possesses. Mutations are an important source of new genetic variability and may lead to new adaptations, especially if the population size is large. Mutation rates are extremely variable between and within species, and males usually have higher mutation rates as a result of elevated rates of male germ cell division. This male bias affects the overall mutation rate. We examined the factors that influence male mutation bias, and focused on the effects of classical life-history parameters, such as the average age at reproduction and elevated rates of sperm production in response to sexual selection and sperm competition. We argue that human-induced changes in age at reproduction or in sexual selection will affect male mutation biases and hence overall mutation rates. Depending on the effective population size, these changes are likely to influence the long-term persistence of a population.

Relationships of basal metabolic rate, relative testis size and cycle length of spermatogenesis in shrews (Mammalia, Soricidae).

The aim of the present study was to determinate the cycle length of spermatogenesis in three species of shrew, Suncus murinus, Sorex coronatus and Sorex minutus, and to assess the relative influence of variation in basal metabolic rate (BMR) and mating system (level of sperm competition) on the observed rate of spermatogenesis, including data of shrew species studied before (Sorex araneus, Crocidura russula and Neomys fodiens). The dynamics of sperm production were determined by tracing 5-bromodeoxyuridine in the DNA of germ cells. As a continuous scaling of mating systems is not evident, the level of sperm competition was evaluated by the significantly correlated relative testis size (RTS). The cycle durations estimated by linear regression were 14.3 days (RTS 0.3%) in Suncus murinus, 9.0 days (RTS 0.5%) in Sorex coronatus and 8.5 days (RTS 2.8%) in Sorex minutus. In regression and multiple regression analyses including all six studied species of shrew, cycle length was significantly correlated with BMR (r2=0.73) and RTS (r2=0.77). Sperm competition as an ultimate factor obviously leads to a reduction in the time of spermatogenesis in order to increase sperm production. BMR may act in the same way, independently or as a proximate factor, revealed by the covariation, but other factors (related to testes size and thus to mating system) may also be involved.

Comment on reversal of hypogonadotropic hypogonadism in a Chinese cohort.

The reversal of congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (CHH) is a relatively recent phenomenon that has gained increasing attention over the past 10 years. Yet to date, only one prospective study has been conducted estimating that 10% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 2%-18%) of cases undergo reversal. [1] Other retrospective studies have reported rates in the range of 5%-8% [2],[3] and a recent study showed 44/308 (14%, 95% CI: 11%-19%) CHH patients underwent reversal. [4] Moreover, a time-to-event analysis in this large cohort revealed a lifetime reversal incidence of 22%. The article by Mao and colleagues presented in this issue is a meaningful contribution to our understanding of reversal as it examines the largest retrospective cohort to date. [5] Interestingly, they report the rate of reversal as 5% (95% CI: 3%-8%) in this Chinese cohort. It is difficult to reconcile the discrepancies in rates of reversibility and direct comparisons are hampered by the variable definitions employed. Using a novel definition for reversal (i.e, either endogenous testosterone (T) >270 ng dl−1 , serum T gradually increasing above 150 ng dl−1 with increased testicular volume, or normal spontaneous sperm production/normal erectile function/ejaculation), Mao and colleagues posit that testicular size and triptorelin-stimulated LH levels are reliable predictive factors for reversal. However, these cannot be considered as hard and fast rules for predicting reversal as the groups intersect - akin to the overlap observed between CHH patients and those with delayed puberty. Indeed, the fact that approximately half (44%, 95% CI: 25%-66%) of the reversal patients in the study by Mao et al.[5] were diagnosed between 17 and 19 years of age, underscores the challenge in differentiating CHH from extreme normal variants of puberty. This study further lends credence the recently reported observations that reversals may relapse. [4],[6] The notion that reversal may not be lasting highlights the vulnerability of the reproductive axis among CHH patients. While the mechanism(s) for relapse are unclear, it seems plausible that environmental, metabolic or psychiatric stressors could contribute. The factors that Mao and colleagues identify as significantly different in cases of reversal, were not informative for identifying those cases that relapsed back to a hypogonadal state. Notably, reversal has been reported in probands harboring mutations in genes underlying CHH. [1],[3],[4],[6] Unfortunately, comprehensive genetic screening on the Chinese cohort is not available. The reversal phenomenon is fascinating for its glimpse into the plasticity of the neuroendocrine control of reproduction. Future directions will almost certainly include investigation of specific genetic signatures and novel biomarkers for predicting reversal (and relapse). Yet CHH is a rare condition and to fully elucidate the biology of reversible CHH, it will be important to harmonize definitions of what constitutes a reversal, carefully phenotype patients and chart the natural history of their CHH. In this way, this unique human disease model may offer further insights into the control of human reproduction and provide opportunities to translate discoveries into enhanced approaches to improve the care and quality of life for these patients.

Identification and characterization of new genes and pathways regulating spermatogonial cell fate

Spermatogenesis, i.e sperm production in the seminiferous tubules of the testis, is a complex process that takes over one month to complete. Life-long ability of sperm production ultimately lies in a small population of undifferentiated cells, called spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs). These cells give rise to differentiating spermatogonia, which are committed to mature into spermatozoa. SSCs represent a heterogeneous population of cells and many aspects of their basic biology are still unknown. Understanding the mechanisms behind the cell fate decision of these cells is important to gain more insights into the causes of infertility and testis cancer. In addition, an interesting new aspect is the use of testis-derived stem cells in regenerative medicine. Our data demonstrated that adult mouse testis houses a population of Nanog-expressing spermatogonia. Based on mRNA and protein analysis these cells are enriched in stage XII of the mouse seminiferous epithelial cycle. The cells derived from this stage have the highest capacity to give rise to ES cell-like cells which express Oct4 and Nanog. These cells are under tight non- GDNF regulation but their fate can be dictated by activating p21 signalling. Comparative studies suggested that these cells are regulated like ES cells. Taken together these data imply that pluripotent cells are present in the adult mammalian testis. CIP2A (cancerous inhibitor of PP2A) has been associated with tumour aggressiveness and poor prognosis. In the testis it is expressed by the descendants of stem cells, i.e. the spermatogonial progenitor cells. Our data suggest that CIP2A acts upstream of PLZF and is needed for quantitatively normal spermatogenesis. Classification of CIP2A as a cancer/testis gene makes it an attractive target for cancer therapy. Study on the CIP2A deficient mouse model demonstrates that systemic inhibition of CIP2A does not severely interfere with growth and development or tissue or organ function, except for the spermatogenic output. These data demonstrate that CIP2A is required for quantitatively normal spermatogenesis. Hedgehog (Hh) signalling is involved in the development and maintenance of many different tissues and organs. According to our data, Hh signalling is active at many different levels during rat spermatogenesis: in spermatogonia, spermatocytes and late elongating spermatids. Localization of Suppressor of Fused (SuFu), the negative regulator of the pathway, specifically in early elongating spermatids suggests that Hh signalling needs to be shut down in these cells. Introduction of Hh signalling inhibitor resulted in an increase in germ cell apoptosis. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and inhibition of receptor tyrosine kinases resulted in down-regulation of Hh signalling. These data show that Hh signalling is under endocrine and paracrine control and it promotes germ cell survival.

The Chromatoid body entourage: Molecular characterization of the Chromatoid body‐associated cytoplasmic vesicles

Spermatogenesis is a unique process compared to cell differentiation in somatic tissues. Germ cells undergo a considerable number of metabolic and morphological changes during their differentiation: they initially proliferate by mitosis to increase in number; at some point they scramble their genetic material by meiosis, to create new genetic combinations that are the basis for evolution through natural selection and, finally, they change their shape and produce specialized structures characteristic of the mature sperm. Germ cells display an astonishingly broad transcription of their genome compared to differentiated somatic cells. Moreover, the different RNAs need to be specifically regulated in space and time for sperm production to occur appropriately. Different proteins localized in specific subcellular compartments, along with regulatory small RNAs, have an essential role in the proper execution of the different steps of spermatogenesis. These ribonucleoprotein granules interact with cytoplasmic vesicles and organelles to accomplish their role during sperm development. In this study, we characterized the most prominent ribonucleoprotein granule found in germ cells, the Chromatoid body (CB). For the first time we investigated the interaction of the CB with the cytoplasmic vesicles that surround it. These studies directed us to the description of Retromer proteins in germ cells and their involvement with the CB and the acrosome formation. Moreover, we discovered the interplay between the CB and the lysosome system in haploid round spermatids, and identified FYCO1, a new protein central to this interaction. Our results suggest that the vesicular transport system participates in the CB-mediated RNA regulation during sperm development.

Efectes del fotoperíode sobre la qualitat espermàtica de mascles porcins Sus domesticus

En el presente estudio se analizan los efectos de los fotoperiodos ambientales de otoño e invierno y los fotoperiodos experimentales de 24, 12 y 0 horas de luz artificial sobre la calidad del semen de machos reproductores porcinos de raza Landrace. El estudio se realizó sobre 30 machos postpuberales de 8 meses de edad y testados con el fin de comprobar la homogeneidad. Los machos fueron distribuidos aleatóriamente en los 3 grupos de luz artificial durante 3 meses. El tratamiento de 12 horas de luz artificial fue considerado como grupo control. Previamente al inicio de cada tratamiento, se sometió a cada grupo de machos al fotoperiodo ambiental correspondiente a la época del año; así, se caracterizó también la calidad seminal en otoño e invierno, manteniendo la temperatura constante. La nave experimental que acogió a los machos tiene una superficie de 100 m2 y una altura de 3,5 m. Un pasillo central divide la nave en dos hileras de 5 y 6 celdas respectivamente. En una de las celdas pequeñas se instaló el maniquí y fue utilizada para las extracciones de semen. La iluminación artificial se consiguió con la instalación de 6 lámparas fluorescentes en el techo del pasillo central que proporcionaron una luz homogénea superior a 200 lux. Así mismo, la nave se mantuvo en todo momento a 21±1ºC y la humedad relativa osciló entre el 60-75%. A todos los verracos se les proporcionó una dieta nutritiva y equilibrada y se les sometió a un regimen de extracciones de semen de 2 veces por semana, habiendo sido previamente entrenados en la monta del maniquí. Les muestras de semen fueron recogidas según la técnica de la mano enguantada (Martín, 1982; Daza, 1992) y se analizaron los siguientes parámetros: el volumen y el pH seminales, la concentración, la vitalidad y la motilidad espermáticas, la resistencia acrosómica de los espermatozoides, la morfología espermàtica a partir de la frecuencia de los espermatozoides maduros, inmaduros y aberrantes, la producción testicular y el número de dosis seminales. Se analizó, además, bioquímicamente el plasma seminal al principio y al final de cada tratamiento experimental de luz artificial a partir de la concentración de proteína total, de la identificación de residuos fosforilados de proteína y del contenido de azúcares. También se determinaron los índices de fertilidad y prolificidad. El volumen y el pH de los eyaculados se utilizaron como marcadores del estado funcional de las glándulas sexuales accesorias; la concentración espermàtica como un indicador de la actividad testicular (Pinart y col., 1999). La vitalidad y la motilidad espermáticas fueron estimadores del grado de diferenciación del espermatozoide tanto a nivel testicular como epididimario; la resistencia acrosómica fue utilizada para valorar el nivel de diferenciación de la membrana acrosómica durante la espermiogénesis y/o maduración epididimària (Briz i col., 1996; Pinart i col., 1999). Referente a la morfología espermática, los espermatozoides inmaduros fueron marcadores de anomalías en la maduración de éstos a lo largo del conducto epididimario y los espermatozoides aberrantes se utilizaron como marcadores de una diferenciación defectuosa a nivel de testículo (anomalías primarias) y a nivel de conducto epididimario (anomalías secundarias) (Briz i col., 1996). La concentración de proteína total se utilizó para valorar la integridad funcional de las membranas del espermatozoide y la actividad de las glándulas sexuales accesorias. La identificación de proteínas con residuos de tirosina fosforilados fue un estimador de la viabilidad celular y la actividad de las glándulas sexuales, y el contenido de azúcares como un indicador de la producción de las vesículas seminales. La determinación del volumen y el pH de los eyaculados se realizó en las instalaciones de la granja a partir de semen fresco el mismo día de la extracción. El resto de parámetros se analizaron en el laboratorio durante las 48 horas posteriores a la extracción a partir de semen diluido en BTS (diluyente de Bestville) (Daza, 1992) y transportado y conservado a 15ºC. Las muestras fueron previamente filtradas con el fin de eliminar la tapioca. El estudio estadístico de los resultados obtenidos se realizó a partir del análisis de la varianza (ANOVA) con un nivel de significación de =0,05. En cuanto al estudio comparativo de los fotoperiodos ambientales estacionales se ha observado un incremento significativo del pH del eyaculado en los machos expuestos a otoño (P0,0001), mientras que el volumen seminal se mantiene en valores similares en ambos tratamientos (P=0,1650). La concentración espermàtica, la producción espermàtica y el número de dosis seminales que se pueden preparar a partir de un eyaculado se duplica en los verracos sometidos al fotoperiodo de primavera (P0,0001). La vitalidad y la motilidad espermáticas no experimentan cambios significativos entre tratamientos (P=0,3440 y P=0,9220, respectivamente). La resistencia osmótica de los acrosomas desciende únicamente en los machos expuestos a condiciones estacionales de otoño (P0,0001). En referencia a la morfología espermàtica aunque no se observan diferencias entre primavera y otoño (P0,05), sí se detecta un incremento de los porcentajes de espermatozoides inmaduros y aberrantes en ambos fotoperiodos estacionales, y en especial en los machos expuestos a condiciones fotoperiódicas de otoño. Según los resultados obtenidos en este estudio la calidad seminal de los verracos es inferior en el fotoperiodo de otoño debido a un descenso de la concentración y la producción espermáticas, un aumento del pH seminal, una disminución de la resistencia de la membrana acrosómica y a un incremento en la frecuencia de espermatozoides inmaduros y aberrantes. Parece ser, pues, que en el otoño tiene lugar la disminución de la producción testicular, cambios en la actividad de las glándulas sexuales accesorias y disfunciones en el proceso de diferenciación testicular y epididimària de los espermatozoides y especialmente del acrosoma. En relación a los resultados obtenidos en el estudio de los diferentes fotoperiodos artificiales se observa que la iluminación continua provoca un aumento significativo del volumen del eyaculado en el primer y segundo mes de tratamiento (P0,0001), disminuyendo en el tercer mes. La oscuridad absoluta no modifica este parámetro (P0,05). En cuanto al pH seminal la iluminación continua provoca un incremento progresivo del valor del pH a lo largo del periodo experimental (P0,0001), mientras que la oscuridad absoluta tiene un efecto más irregular. La exposición de los machos a iluminación continua y a oscuridad absoluta se manifiesta en un descenso de la concentración y la producción espermáticas que se mantiene hasta el segundo mes de tratamiento (P0,0001), observándose un incremento en el tercer mes de exposición de los machos a oscuridad absoluta (P=0,1010). De todas maneras, este descenso es mas severo en los machos sometidos a iluminación continua ya que no presentan recuperación. La vitalidad y la motilidad espermáticas no se ven alteradas por la iluminación continua y la oscuridad absoluta, ni tampoco el contenido de los azúcares mayoritarios del plasma seminal (P0,005). La glucosa aparece como un azúcar minoritario y sí que presenta concentraciones inferiores en los tratamientos experimentales de luz continua y de oscuridad absoluta (P0,0001 y P=0,0002, respectivamente). La resistencia osmótica de los acrosomas desciende en ambos tratamientos artificiales extremos de luz continua y oscuridad total (P0,0001), aunque en los machos expuestos a iluminación continua se produce una recuperación a partir del segundo mes de tratamiento (P=0,4930). Dado que tampoco se han observado diferencias significativas en las concentraciones de proteína total (P0,05), es probable que las anomalías de la membrana acrosómica se originen durante el proceso de espermiogénesis y/o maduración epididimària. La exposición de los verracos a oscuridad absoluta no altera la morfología espermàtica de los eyaculados, aunque se observa un aumento de la frecuencia de espermatozoides con anomalías en la forma de la cola en el primer mes (P0,0001), y un aumento de la frecuencia de espermatozoides inmaduros con gota distal y de espermatozoides con anomalías en el número de colas en el tercer mes de experimentación (P=0,0030 y P0,0001). La luz continua, sin embargo, provoca un incremento de la frecuencia de espermatozoides inmaduros con gota distal (P0,0001) y de espermatozoides con anomalías en la forma de la cola (P=0,0040) ya en el primer mes. El fotoperiodo provoca un descenso de la fertilidad de los machos expuestos a oscuridad absoluta en el tercer mes de tratamiento (P0,0001) y un incremento de ésta en los machos sometidos a iluminación continua (P=0,0005). La prolificidad no se ve modificada por ambas condiciones extremas de luz artificial (P0,05). Así pues, los resultados obtenidos demuestran que el fotoperiodo afecta la actividad testicular, provoca alteraciones en la actividad de las glándulas sexuales accesorias, altera el proceso de expulsión de la gota citoplasmática y provoca anomalías en el proceso de diferenciación de la cola tanto a nivel testicular como epididimario, siendo los verracos expuestos a luz continua más sensibles a estos parámetros que los verracos sometidos a oscuridad absoluta. El fotoperiodo, sin embargo, no altera de forma esencial la integridad de las membranas del espermatozoide ni la capacidad fecundante de éste.

Semen parameters, fertility and testosterone levels in male rats exposed prenatally to betamethasone

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Could zinc prevent reproductive alterations caused by cigarette smoke in male rats?

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

EFFECTS of DIURON on MALE RAT REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS: A DEVELOPMENTAL and POSTNATAL STUDY

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Epididymis-specific pathologic disorders in rats exposed to gossypol from weaning through puberty

Previous work in our laboratory revealed that the pubertal period of reproductive development in the male rat was particularly vulnerable to gossypol exposure, with a higher frequency of round structures in the lumen of the cauda epididymidis in the treated rats. Herein, we utilized hemicastration and electron microscopy to confirm that the epididymis is a definitive target of gossypol. Although exposure to gossypol from weaning through puberty caused a significant decrease in daily sperm production, as well as in the concentration of sperm in the epididymis, serum testosterone levels and reproductive organ weights were not altered. In gossypol treated rats, sperm morphology was compromised severely, but the epithelium in testis and epididymis appeared morphologically normal. Ultrastructural examination revealed that round structures, present only in gossypol exposed males, represented: (1) principal cells exfoliated from the epididymal epithelium; (2) epididymal epithelial cell cytoplasm containing degenerating sperm; and (3) degenerating epithelial cells, consisting of vesicles and particles of different sizes, forms and densities. Taken together, the data confirm that gossypol targets the epididymis, disturbing both the structure and function of this organ, and presumably disrupts sperm maturation.

Effects of the hydromethanolic extract of Austroplenckia populnea (Celastraceae) on reproductive parameters of male rats

Austroplenckia populnea (Reiss.) Lundell. was selected for this study because it has been shown that some plants from the Celastraceae family have antifertility effects. Twelve adult male rats were treated with hydromethanolic extract made from the leaves, 500 mg/kg/day, orally, for 70 days. Distilled water was administered to the control animals (n = 10). At the end of the experiment, and before killing the rats, their sexual behavior was evaluated. The number of intromissions, latencies to first mount and ejaculation, and first intromission after ejaculation were significantly reduced in the treated group, but the total number of ejaculations did not differ from the control group. The weight and histology of the reproductive organs, sperm production, spermatogenesis, prostate fructose content, cauda epidydimides duct diameter, and sperm morphology were not affected. Sperm concentration in cauda epidydimides was significantly decreased. The results showed that A. populnea has effects on male rat reproduction, affecting the sexual behavior and epididymal sperm concentration. (C) 2002 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Impairment of adult male reproductive function in rats exposed to ethanol since puberty

The objective of this work was to evaluate reproductive function in adult male rats exposed to ethanol since puberty. Male Wistar rats, 50 days old, received a liquid diet with 36% of the daily calories derived from ethanol or an isocaloric control diet for 55 days. The ethanol treatment impaired sexual behavior and only 22% of these rats reached ejaculation. The fertility of ethanol-treated animals was significantly reduced, mainly after natural mating. Serum testosterone levels, daily sperm production and sperm count in the epididymis were also significantly diminished after ethanol treatment, associated with an acceleration of the sperm transit time in the cauda epididymidis, decrease in sperm motility and increased percentage of abnormal shaped sperm cells. The results showed that chronic consumption of ethanol beginning at puberty impairs the reproductive function of adult male rats. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Reproductive and sexual behavior changes in male rats exposed perinatally to picrotoxin

Previous studies in rats suggested that picrotoxin, a GABA(A) receptor antagonist, may cause long-term changes in male reproductive physiology and behavior in rats exposed during prenatal and postnatal periods. The present study has further examined this phenomenon. Wistar rat dams were dosed subcutaneously with 0.75 mg/kg picrotoxin in saline, or vehicle alone, during the perinatal period (day 19 of gestation, immediately after parturition, and once a day during the first 5 days of lactation). Birth weight and sexual maturation of pups were unchanged; however, plasma testosterone levels and sexual behavior was altered in male offspring. Although fertile, these males showed altered mating behavior in terms of a decrease in the mean number of mounts during a 30-min observation period with normal females. Some showed homosexual behavior when castrated and pretreated with exogenous estrogen. These findings suggest that perinatal exposure to picrotoxin alters sexual dimorphism in the developing rat brain, manifesting as altered reproductive performance and sexual behavior of males. (c) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Copulatory efficiency and fertility in male rats exposed perinatally to flutamide

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)