LESION OF THE COMMISSURAL NUCLEUS OF THE SOLITARY TRACT/A2 NORADRENERGIC NEURONS FACILITATES THE ACTIVATION OF ANGIOTENSINERGIC MECHANISMS IN RESPONSE TO HEMORRHAGE

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

The nucleus of the solitary tract and the coordination of respiratory and sympathetic activities

It is well known that breathing introduces rhythmical oscillations in the heart rate and arterial pressure levels. Sympathetic oscillations coupled to the respiratory activity have been suggested as an important homeostatic mechanism optimizing tissue perfusion and blood gas uptake/delivery. This respiratory-sympathetic coupling is strengthened in conditions of blood gas challenges (hypoxia and hypercapnia) as a result of the synchronized activation of brainstem respiratory and sympathetic neurons, culminating with the emergence of entrained cardiovascular and respiratory reflex responses. Studies have proposed that the ventrolateral region of the medulla oblongata is a major site of synaptic interaction between respiratory and sympathetic neurons. However, other brainstem regions also play a relevant role in the patterning of respiratory and sympathetic motor outputs. Recent findings suggest that the neurons of the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS), in the dorsal medulla, are essential for the processing and coordination of respiratory and sympathetic responses to hypoxia. The NTS is the first synaptic station of the cardiorespiratory afferent inputs, including peripheral chemoreceptors, baroreceptors and pulmonary stretch receptors. The synaptic profile of the NTS neurons receiving the excitatory drive from afferent inputs is complex and involves distinct neurotransmitters, including glutamate, ATP and acetylcholine. In the present review we discuss the role of the NTS circuitry in coordinating sympathetic and respiratory reflex responses. We also analyze the neuroplasticity of NTS neurons and their contribution for the development of cardiorespiratory dysfunctions, as observed in neurogenic hypertension, obstructive sleep apnea and metabolic disorders.

Arterial pressure and gene expression in the nucleus of the solitary tract in rats fed with high-fat diet

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Cardiovascular effects of chronically increasing angiotensin II type 2 receptor expression in the nucleus of the solitary tract

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Catecholaminergic neurons in the comissural region of the nucleus of the solitary tract modulate hyperosmolality-induced responses

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Commissural nucleus of the solitary tract regulates the antihypertensive effects elicited by moxonidine

The rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) contains the presympathetic neurons involved in cardiovascular regulation that has been implicated as one of the most important central sites for the antihypertensive action of moxonidine (an α2-adrenergic and imidazoline agonist). Here, we sought to evaluate the cardiovascular effects produced by moxonidine injected into another important brainstem site, the commissural nucleus of the solitary tract (commNTS). Mean arterial pressure (MAP), heart rate (HR), splanchnic sympathetic nerve activity (sSNA) and activity of putative sympathoexcitatory vasomotor neurons of the RVLM were recorded in conscious or urethane-anesthetized, and artificial ventilated male Wistar rats. In conscious or anesthetized rats, moxonidine (2.5 and 5 nmol/50 nl) injected into the commNTS reduced MAP, HR and sSNA. The injection of moxonidine into the commNTS also elicited a reduction of 28% in the activity of sympathoexcitatory vasomotor neurons of the RVLM. To further assess the notion that moxonidine could act in another brainstem area to elicit the antihypertensive effects, a group with electrolytic lesions of the commNTS or sham and with stainless steel guide-cannulas implanted into the 4th V were used. In the sham group, moxonidine (20 nmol/1 μl) injected into 4th V decreased MAP and HR. The hypotension but not the bradycardia produced by moxonidine into the 4th V was reduced in acute (1 day) commNTS-lesioned rats. These data suggest that moxonidine can certainly act in other brainstem regions, such as commNTS to produce its beneficial therapeutic effects, such as hypotension and reduction in sympathetic nerve activity.

The vesicular monoamine transporter 2 is present in small synaptic vesicles and preferentially localizes to large dense core vesicles in rat solitary tract nuclei.

In central neurons, monamine neurotransmitters are taken up and stored within two distinct classes of regulated secretory vesicles: small synaptic vesicles and large dense core vesicles (DCVs). Biochemical and pharmacological evidence has shown that this uptake is mediated by specific vesicular monamine transporters (VMATs). Recent molecular cloning techniques have identified the vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT2) that is expressed in brain. This transporter determines the sites of intracellular storage of monoamines and has been implicated in both the modulation of normal monoaminergic neurotransmission and the pathogenesis of related neuropsychiatric disease. We used an antiserum against VMAT2 to examine its ultrastructural distribution in rat solitary tract nuclei, a region that contains a dense and heterogeneous population of monoaminergic neurons. We find that both immunoperoxidase and immunogold labeling for VMAT2 localize to DCVs and small synaptic vesicles in axon terminals, the trans-Golgi network of neuronal perikarya, tubulovesicles of smooth endoplasmic reticulum, and potential sites of vesicular membrane recycling. In axon terminals, immunogold labeling for VMAT2 was preferentially associated with DCVs at sites distant from typical synaptic junctions. The results provide direct evidence that a single VMAT is expressed in two morphologically distinct types of regulated secretory vesicles in central monoaminergic neurons.

Increased Expression of Angiotensin II Type 2 Receptors in the Solitary-Vagal Complex Blunts Renovascular Hypertension

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

条件反射性免疫抑制及其脑机制的c-fos研究

To explore the neural mechanisms underlying conditioned immunomodulation, this study employed the classical taste aversion (CTA) behavioral paradigm to establish the conditioned humoral and cellular immunosuppression (CIS) in Wistar rats, by paring saccharin (CS) with intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of an immunosuppressive drug cyclophophamide (UCS). C-fos immunohistochemistry method was used to observe the changes of the neuronal activities in the rat brain during the acquisition, expression and extinction of the conditioned immunosuppression (CIS). The followings are the main results: 1. Five days after one trial of CS-UCS paring, reexposure to CS alone significantly decreased the level of the anti-ovalbumin (OVA) IgG in the peripheral serum. Two trials of CS-UCS paring and three reexposures to CS not only resulted in further suppression of the primary immune response, but also reduced the numbers of peripheral lymphocytes and white blood cells. This finding indicates that CS can induce suppression of the immune function, and the magnitude of the effects is dependent on the intensity of training. 2. On day 5 following two trials of CS-UCS pairing, CS suppressed the spleen lymphocytes responsiveness to mitogens ConA, PHA and PWM, and decreased the numbers of peripheral lymphocytes and white blood cells. On day 15, only PHA induced lymphocyte proliferation was suppressed by CS. On day 30, presentation of CS did not have any effect on these immune parameters. These results suggest that the conditioned suppression of the cellular immune function can retain 5-15 days, and extinct after 30 days. 3. CTA was easily induced by one or two CS-UCS parings, and remained robust even after 30 days. These data demonstrate that CIS can be dissociated from CTA, and they may be mediated by different neural mechanisms. 4. Immunohistochemistry assays revealed a broad pattern of c-fos expression throughout the rat brain following the CS-UCS pairing and reexposure to CS, suggesting that many brain regions are involved in CIS. Some brain areas including the solitary tract nucleus (Sol), lateral parabrachial nucleus (LPB) and insular cortex (IC), showed high level c-fos expressions in response to both CS and UCS, suggesting that they may be involved in the transmission and integration of the CS and UCS signals in the brain. There were dense c-FOS positive neurons in the paraverntricular nucleus (PVN) and supraoptic nucleus (SO) of hypothalamus, subfornical organ (SFO) and area postrema (AP) etc. after two trials of CS-UCS paring and after the reexposure to CS 5 days later, but not in the first training and after the extinction of CIS (30 days later). The results reflect that these nuclei may have an important role in CIS expression, and may also response to the immunosuppression of UCS. The conditioned training and reexposure to CS 5 days later induced high level c-fos expression in the cingulate cortex (Cg), central amygdaloid nucleus (Ce), intermediate part of lateral septal nucleus (LSI) and ventrolateral parabrachial nucleus (VLPB) etc. But c-fos induction was not apparent when presenting CS 30 days later. These brain regions are mainly involved in CIS, and may be critical structures in the acquisition and expression of CIS. Some brain regions, including the frontal cortex (Fr), ventral orbital cortex (VO), IC, perirhinal cortex (PRh), LPB and the medial part of solitary nucleus (SolM), showed robust c-FOS expression following the conditioning training and reexposure to CS both on day 5 and day 30, suggesting that they are critically involved in CTA.

Impact de l'haploinsuffisance du gène Sim1 sur le développement et la fonction du noyau paraventriculaire de l'hypothalamus

L’obésité provient d’un déséquilibre de l’homéostasie énergétique, c’est-à-dire une augmentation des apports caloriques et/ou une diminution des dépenses énergétiques. Plusieurs données, autant anatomiques que physiologiques, démontrent que l’hypothalamus est un régulateur critique de l’appétit et des dépenses énergétiques. En particulier, le noyau paraventriculaire (noyau PV) de l’hypothalamus intègre plusieurs signaux provenant du système nerveux central (SNC) et/ou de la périphérie, afin de contrôler l’homéostasie énergétique via des projections axonales sur les neurones pré-ganglionnaires du système autonome situé dans le troc cérébral et la moelle épinière. Plusieurs facteurs de transcription, impliqués dans le développement du noyau PV, ont été identifiés. Le facteur de transcription SIM1, qui est produit par virtuellement tous les neurones du noyau PV, est requis pour le développement du noyau PV. En effet, lors d’une étude antérieure, nous avons montré que le noyau PV ne se développe pas chez les souris homozygotes pour un allèle nul de Sim1. Ces souris meurent à la naissance, probablement à cause des anomalies du noyau PV. Par contre, les souris hétérozygotes survivent, mais développent une obésité précoce. De façon intéressante, le noyau PV des souris Sim1+/- est hypodéveloppé, contenant 24% moins de cellules. Ces données suggèrent fortement que ces anomalies du développement pourraient perturber le fonctionnement du noyau PV et contribuer au développement du phénotype d’obésité. Dans ce contexte, nous avons entrepris des travaux expérimentaux ayant pour but d’étudier l’impact de l’haploinsuffisance de Sim1 sur : 1) le développement du noyau PV et de ses projections neuronales efférentes; 2) l’homéostasie énergétique; et 3) les voies neuronales physiologiques contrôlant l’homéostasie énergétique chez les souris Sim1+/-. A cette fin, nous avons utilisé : 1) des injections stéréotaxiques combinées à des techniques d’immunohistochimie afin de déterminer l’impact de l’haploinsuffisance de Sim1 sur le développement du noyau PV et de ses projections neuronales efférentes; 2) le paradigme des apports caloriques pairés, afin de déterminer l’impact de l’haploinsuffisance de Sim1 sur l’homéostasie énergétique; et 3) une approche pharmacologique, c’est-à-dire l’administration intra- cérébroventriculaire (i.c.v.) et/ou intra-péritonéale (i.p.) de peptides anorexigènes, la mélanotane II (MTII), la leptine et la cholécystokinine (CCK), afin de déterminer l’impact de l’haploinsuffisance de Sim1 sur les voies neuronales contrôlant l’homéostasie énergétique. Dans un premier temps, nous avons constaté une diminution de 61% et de 65% de l’expression de l’ARN messager (ARNm) de l’ocytocine (Ot) et de l’arginine-vasopressine (Vp), respectivement, chez les embryons Sim1+/- de 18.5 jours (E18.5). De plus, le nombre de cellules produisant l’OT et la VP est apparu diminué de 84% et 41%, respectivement, chez les souris Sim1+/- adultes. L’analyse du marquage axonal rétrograde des efférences du noyau PV vers le tronc cérébral, en particulier ses projections sur le noyau tractus solitaire (NTS) aussi que le noyau dorsal moteur du nerf vague (X) (DMV), a permis de démontrer une diminution de 74% de ces efférences. Cependant, la composition moléculaire de ces projections neuronales reste inconnue. Nos résultats indiquent que l’haploinsuffisance de Sim1 : i) perturbe spécifiquement le développement des cellules produisant l’OT et la VP; et ii) abolit le développement d’une portion importante des projections du noyau PV sur le tronc cérébral, et notamment ses projections sur le NTS et le DMV. Ces observations soulèvent donc la possibilité que ces anomalies du développement du noyau PV contribuent au phénotype d’hyperphagie des souris Sim1+/-. En second lieu, nous avons observé que la croissance pondérale des souris Sim1+/- et des souris Sim1+/+ n’était pas significativement différente lorsque la quantité de calories présentée aux souris Sim1+/- était la même que celle consommée par les souris Sim1+/+. De plus, l’analyse qualitative et quantitative des tissus adipeux blancs et des tissus adipeux bruns n’a démontré aucune différence significative en ce qui a trait à la taille et à la masse de ces tissus chez les deux groupes. Finalement, au terme de ces expériences, les souris Sim1+/--pairées n’étaient pas différentes des souris Sim1+/+ en ce qui a trait à leur insulinémie et leur contenu en triglycérides du foie et des masses adipeuses, alors que tous ces paramètres étaient augmentés chez les souris Sim1+/- nourries ad libitum. Ces résultats laissent croire que l’hyperphagie, et non une diminution des dépenses énergétiques, est la cause principale de l’obésité des souris Sim1+/-. Par conséquent, ces résultats suggèrent que : i) l’haploinsuffisance de Sim1 est associée à une augmentation de l’apport calorique sans toutefois moduler les dépenses énergétiques; ii) l’existence d’au moins deux voies neuronales issues du noyau PV : l’une qui régule la prise alimentaire et l’autre la thermogénèse; et iii) l’haploinsuffisance de Sim1 affecte spécifiquement la voie neuronale qui régule la prise alimentaire. En dernier lieu, nous avons montré que l’injection de MTII, de leptine ainsi que de CCK induit une diminution significative de la consommation calorique des souris des deux génotypes, Sim1+/+ et Sim1+/-. De fait, la consommation calorique cumulative des souris Sim1+/- et Sim1+/+ est diminuée de 37% et de 51%, respectivement, durant les 4 heures suivant l’administration i.p. de MTII comparativement à l’administration d’une solution saline. Lors de l’administration i.c.v. de la leptine, la consommation calorique cumulative des souris Sim1+/- et Sim1+/+ est diminuée de 47% et de 32%, respectivement. Finalement, l’injection i.p. de CCK diminue la consommation calorique des souris Sim1+/- et Sim1+/+ de 52% et de 36%, respectivement. L’ensemble des résultats suggère ici que l’haploinsuffisance de Sim1 diminue l’activité de certaines voies neuronales régulant l’homéostasie énergétique, et particulièrement de celles qui contrôlent la prise alimentaire. En résumé, ces travaux ont montré que l’haploinsuffisance de Sim1 affecte plusieurs processus du développement au sein du noyau PV. Ces anomalies du développement peuvent conduire à des dysfonctions de certains processus physiologiques distincts régulés par le noyau PV, et notamment de la prise alimentaire, et contribuer ainsi au phénotype d’obésité. Les souris hétérozygotes pour le gène Sim1 représentent donc un modèle animal unique, où l’hyperphagie, et non les dépenses énergétiques, est la principale cause de l’obésité. En conséquence, ces souris pourraient représenter un modèle expérimental intéressant pour l’étude des mécanismes cellulaires et moléculaires en contrôle de la prise alimentaire.

Voltage-gated potassium currents within the dorsal vagal nucleus: inhibition by BDS toxin

Voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channels are essential components of neuronal excitability. The Kv3.4 channel protein is widely distributed throughout the central nervous system (CNS), where it can form heteromeric or homomeric Kv3 channels. Electrophysiological studies reported here highlight a functional role for this channel protein within neurons of the dorsal vagal nucleus (DVN). Current clamp experiments revealed that blood depressing substance (BDS) and intracellular dialysis of an anti-Kv3.4 antibody prolonged the action potential duration. In addition, a BDS sensitive, voltage-dependent, slowly inactivating outward current was observed in voltage clamp recordings from DVN neurons. Electrical stimulation of the solitary tract evoked EPSPs and IPSPs in DVN neurons and BDS increased the average amplitude and decreased the paired pulse ratio, consistent with a presynaptic site of action. This presynaptic modulation was action potential dependent as revealed by ongoing synaptic activity. Given the role of the Kv3 proteins in shaping neuronal excitability, these data highlight a role for homomeric Kv3.4 channels in spike timing and neurotransmitter release in low frequency firing neurons of the DVN.

Localization and function of the Kv3.1b subunit in the rat medulla oblongata: focus on the nucleus tractus solitarii

The voltage-gated potassium channel subunit Kv3.1 confers fast firing characteristics to neurones. Kv3.1b subunit immunoreactivity (Kv3.1b-IR) was widespread throughout the medulla oblongata, with labelled neurones in the gracile, cuneate and spinal trigeminal nuclei. In the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS), Kv3.1b-IR neurones were predominantly located close to the tractus solitarius (TS) and could be GABAergic or glutamatergic. Ultrastructurally, Kv3.1b-IR was detected in NTS terminals, some of which were vagal afferents. Whole-cell current-clamp recordings from neurones near the TS revealed electrophysiological characteristics consistent with the presence of Kv3.1b subunits: short duration action potentials (4.2 +/- 1.4 ms) and high firing frequencies (68.9 +/- 5.3 Hz), both sensitive to application of TEA (0.5 mm) and 4-aminopyridine (4-AP; 30 mum). Intracellular dialysis of an anti-Kv3.1b antibody mimicked and occluded the effects of TEA and 4-AP in NTS and dorsal column nuclei neurones, but not in dorsal vagal nucleus or cerebellar Purkinje cells (which express other Kv3 subunits, but not Kv3.1b). Voltage-clamp recordings from outside-out patches from NTS neurones revealed an outward K(+) current with the basic characteristics of that carried by Kv3 channels. In NTS neurones, electrical stimulation of the TS evoked EPSPs and IPSPs, and TEA and 4-AP increased the average amplitude and decreased the paired pulse ratio, consistent with a presynaptic site of action. Synaptic inputs evoked by stimulation of a region lacking Kv3.1b-IR neurones were not affected, correlating the presence of Kv3.1b in the TS with the pharmacological effects.

A modified rat model of neonatal anoxia: Development and evaluation by pulseoximetry, arterial gasometry and Fos immunoreactivity

Neonatal anoxia is a worldwide clinical problem that has serious and lasting consequences. The diversity of models does not allow complete reproducibility, so a standardized model is needed. In this study, we developed a rat model of neonatal anoxia that utilizes a semi-hermetic system suitable for oxygen deprivation. The validity of this model was confirmed using pulse oximetry, arterial gasometry, observation of skin color and behavior and analysis of Fos immunoreactivity in brain regions that function in respiratory control. For these experiments, 87 male albino neonate rats (Rattus norvegicus, lineage Wistar) aged approximate 30 postnatal hours were divided into anoxia and control groups. The pups were kept in an euthanasia polycarbonate chamber at 36 +/- 1 degrees C, with continuous 100% nitrogen gas flow at 3 L/min and 101.7 kPa for 25 min. The peripheral arterial oxygen saturation of the anoxia group decreased 75% from its initial value. Decreased pH and partial pressure of oxygen and increased partial pressure of carbon dioxide were observed in this group, indicating metabolic acidosis, hypoxia and hypercapnia. respectively. Analysis of neuronal activation showed Fos immunoreactivity in the solitary tract nucleus, the lateral reticular nucleus and the area postrema, confirming that those conditions activated areas related to respiratory control in the nervous system. Therefore, the proposed model of neonatal anoxia allows standardization and precise control of the anoxic condition, which should be of great value in indentifying both the mechanisms underlying neonatal anoxia and novel therapeutic strategies to combat or prevent this widespread public health problem. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Central mechanisms involved in pilocarpine-induced pressor response

Pilocarpine (cholinergic muscarinic agonist) injected peripherally may act centrally to produce pressor responses; in the present study, using c-fos immunoreactive expression, we investigated the forebrain and brainstem areas activated by pressor doses of intravenous (i.v.) pilocarpine. In addition, the importance of vasopressin secretion and/or sympathetic activation and the effects of lesions in the anteroventral third ventricle (AV3V) region in awake rats were also investigated. In male Holtzman rats, pilocarpine (0.04 to 4 mu mol/kg b.w.) i.v. induced transitory hypotension followed by long lasting hypertension. Sympathetic blockade with prazosin (1 mg/kg b.w.) i.v. or AV3V lesions (1 day) almost abolished the pressor response to i. v. pilocarpine (2 mu mol/kg b.w.), whereas the vasopressin antagonist (10 mu g/kg b.w.) i.v. reduced the response to pilocarpine. Pilocarpine (2 and 4 mu mol/kg b.w.) i.v. increased the number of c-fos immunoreactive cells in the subfornical organ, paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus, organ vasculosum of the lamina terminalis, median preoptic nucleus, nucleus of the solitary tract and caudal and rostral ventrolateral medulla. These data suggest that i.v. pilocarpine activates specific forebrain and brainstem mechanisms increasing sympathetic activity and vasopressin secretion to induce pressor response. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.