Análise tribo-termodinâmica da aplicação de nanopartículas de Al2O3 como aditivo lubrificante em compressor hermético de refrigeração

The thermodynamic performance of a refrigeration system can be improved by reducing the compression work by a particular technique for a specific heat removal rate. This study examines the effect of small concentrations of Al2O3 (50 nm) nanoparticles dispersion in the mineral oil based lubricant on the: viscosity, thermal conductivity, and lubrication characteristics as well as the overall performance (based on the Second Law of Thermodynamics) of the refrigerating system using R134a or R600a as refrigerants. The study looked at the influences of variables: i) refrigerant charge (100, 110, 120 and 130 g), ii) rotational speed of the condenser blower (800 and 1100 RPM) and iii) nanoparticle concentration (0.1 and 0.5 g/l) on the system performance based on the Taguchi method in a matrix of L8 trials with the criterion "small irreversibility is better”. They were carried pulldown and cycling tests according to NBR 12866 and NBR 12869, respectively, to evaluate the operational parameters: on-time ratio, cycles per hour, suction and discharge pressures, oil sump temperature, evaporation and condensation temperatures, energy consumption at the set-point, total energy consumption and compressor power. In order to evaluate the nanolubricant characteristics, accelerated tests were performed in a HFRR bench. In each 60 minutes test with nanolubricants at a certain concentration (0, 0.1 and 0.5 g/l), with three replications, the sphere (diameter 6.00 ± 0.05 mm, Ra 0.05 ± 0.005 um, AISI 52100 steel, E = 210 GPa, HRC 62 ± 4) sliding on a flat plate (cast iron FC200, Ra <0.5 ± 0.005 um) in a reciprocating motion with amplitude of 1 mm, frequency 20 Hz and a normal load of 1,96 N. The friction coefficient signals were recorded by sensors coupled to the HFRR system. There was a trend commented bit in the literature: a nanolubricant viscosity reduction at the low nanoparticles concentrations. It was found the dominant trend in the literature: increased thermal conductivity with increasing nanoparticles mass fraction in the base fluid. Another fact observed is the significant thermal conductivity growth of nanolubricant with increasing temperature. The condenser fan rotational speed is the most influential parameter (46.192%) in the refrigerator performance, followed by R600a charge (38.606%). The Al2O3 nanoparticles concentration in the lubricant plays a minor influence on system performance, with 12.44%. The results of power consumption indicates that the nanoparticles addition in the lubricant (0.1 g/L), together with R600a, the refrigerator consumption is reduced of 22% with respect to R134a and POE lubricant. Only the Al2O3 nanoparticles addition in the lubricant results in a consumption reduction of about 5%.

Analisi sperimentale delle prestazioni di un sistema micro-ORC

Con l’aumento del consumo mondiale di risorse energetiche del pianeta, è diventato sempre più necessario utilizzare sistemi energetici che sfruttino al meglio la fonte di energia che li alimenta. Una delle soluzioni in questo ambito è quella proposta dagli Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC). Questi sistemi recuperano energia termica altrimenti non utilizzabile per le temperature troppo basse e sfruttano sorgenti termiche con ampi range di temperatura. L’elaborato volge all’analisi sperimentale delle prestazioni di un sistema Micro-ORC di piccola taglia, con rendimento termodinamico massimo dichiarato dal costruttore del 10 %. Inizialmente vengono descritti i fluidi organici e i sistemi che ne fanno uso, descrivendo anche esempi bibliografici di banchi prova per interpretare al meglio i risultati ottenuti con quello disponibile, che viene poi descritto, comprendendo i circuiti di asservimento dell’acqua calda e fredda, i punti di misura e il programma di acquisizione dati. Ci si concentra poi sulla descrizione e l’utilizzo dei codici implementati per l’elaborazione dei dati acquisiti. Questi hanno permesso di osservare gli andamenti temporali delle grandezze fondamentali per il sistema e valutarne la ripetibilità del comportamento nel corso di differenti prove. Vengono proposte infine le mappe di funzionamento per l’intero impianto e per i vari sotto-sistemi, offrendone un’interpretazione e inquadrandone i punti di lavoro ottimali. Attraverso la loro osservazione si sono dedotte le condizioni necessarie per avere un funzionamento ritenuto stabile del sistema ed è stato possibile ottimizzare le procedure svolte durante le fasi di test e di acquisizione dati. Sarà oggetto di studi futuri l’ottimizzazione dell’impianto, prolungando i tempi di esercizio a parità di carico elettrico e frequenza imposta alla pompa, con il fine di ottenere delle curve di prestazioni confrontabili con quelle presenti in bibliografia per altri sistemi ORC.

Analisi sperimentale del funzionamento di un sistema micro-ORC

Questa tesi tratta nello specifico lo studio di un impianto micro-ORC, capace di sfruttare acqua alla temperatura di circa 70-90°C come sorgente termica. Questo sistema presenta una potenza dichiarata dal costruttore pari a 3kW e un rendimento del 9%. In primo luogo, si descrivono le caratteristiche principali dei fluidi organici, in particolare quelle del freon R134a, impiegato nel banco prova. Vengono illustrati dettagliatamente l’impianto e la sensoristica utilizzata per le misurazioni delle varie grandezze fisiche. Tramite esse, con l’utilizzo di un programma di acquisizione dati appositamente relizzato in ambiente LabVIEW, è stato possibile calcolare in tempo reale tutti i parametri di funzionamento, necessari per la caratterizzazione del sistema. Per una veloce ed efficiente elaborazione dei dati registrati durante le prove in laboratorio, è stato realizzato un programma in linguaggio VBA. L’utilizzo di questo codice ha permesso, in primo luogo, di individuare e correggere eventuali errori di calcolo e acquisizione presenti in ambiente LabVIEW e, in secondo luogo, si è reso indispensabile per comprendere il funzionamento dell’impianto nelle varie fasi, come accensione, spegnimento e produzione di potenza. Sono state inoltre identificate le modalità di risposta del sistema al variare dei comandi impostabili dall’utente, quali il numero di giri della pompa e la variazione della temperatura della sorgente calda. Si sono poi osservate le risposte del sistema al variare delle condizioni esterne, come ad esempio la temperatura dell’acqua di condensazione. Una specifica prova è stata analizzata in questo elaborato. Durante tale prova il sistema ha lavorato in forte off-design, erogando una potenza elettrica pari a 255 W, raggiungendo un basso valore del rendimento (pari a 1.8%). L’analisi dei dati ha portato ad identificare nuovi limiti di funzionamento, legati ad esempio alla quantità di fluido interna al sistema.

DIRECT NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF INCOMPRESSIBLE MULTIPHASE FLOW WITH PHASE CHANGE

Phase change problems arise in many practical applications such as air-conditioning and refrigeration, thermal energy storage systems and thermal management of electronic devices. The physical phenomenon in such applications are complex and are often difficult to be studied in detail with the help of only experimental techniques. The efforts to improve computational techniques for analyzing two-phase flow problems with phase change are therefore gaining momentum. The development of numerical methods for multiphase flow has been motivated generally by the need to account more accurately for (a) large topological changes such as phase breakup and merging, (b) sharp representation of the interface and its discontinuous properties and (c) accurate and mass conserving motion of the interface. In addition to these considerations, numerical simulation of multiphase flow with phase change introduces additional challenges related to discontinuities in the velocity and the temperature fields. Moreover, the velocity field is no longer divergence free. For phase change problems, the focus of developmental efforts has thus been on numerically attaining a proper conservation of energy across the interface in addition to the accurate treatment of fluxes of mass and momentum conservation as well as the associated interface advection. Among the initial efforts related to the simulation of bubble growth in film boiling applications the work in \cite{Welch1995} was based on the interface tracking method using a moving unstructured mesh. That study considered moderate interfacial deformations. A similar problem was subsequently studied using moving, boundary fitted grids \cite{Son1997}, again for regimes of relatively small topological changes. A hybrid interface tracking method with a moving interface grid overlapping a static Eulerian grid was developed \cite{Juric1998} for the computation of a range of phase change problems including, three-dimensional film boiling \cite{esmaeeli2004computations}, multimode two-dimensional pool boiling \cite{Esmaeeli2004} and film boiling on horizontal cylinders \cite{Esmaeeli2004a}. The handling of interface merging and pinch off however remains a challenge with methods that explicitly track the interface. As large topological changes are crucial for phase change problems, attention has turned in recent years to front capturing methods utilizing implicit interfaces that are more effective in treating complex interface deformations. The VOF (Volume of Fluid) method was adopted in \cite{Welch2000} to simulate the one-dimensional Stefan problem and the two-dimensional film boiling problem. The approach employed a specific model for mass transfer across the interface involving a mass source term within cells containing the interface. This VOF based approach was further coupled with the level set method in \cite{Son1998}, employing a smeared-out Heaviside function to avoid the numerical instability related to the source term. The coupled level set, volume of fluid method and the diffused interface approach was used for film boiling with water and R134a at the near critical pressure condition \cite{Tomar2005}. The effect of superheat and saturation pressure on the frequency of bubble formation were analyzed with this approach. The work in \cite{Gibou2007} used the ghost fluid and the level set methods for phase change simulations. A similar approach was adopted in \cite{Son2008} to study various boiling problems including three-dimensional film boiling on a horizontal cylinder, nucleate boiling in microcavity \cite{lee2010numerical} and flow boiling in a finned microchannel \cite{lee2012direct}. The work in \cite{tanguy2007level} also used the ghost fluid method and proposed an improved algorithm based on enforcing continuity and divergence-free condition for the extended velocity field. The work in \cite{sato2013sharp} employed a multiphase model based on volume fraction with interface sharpening scheme and derived a phase change model based on local interface area and mass flux. Among the front capturing methods, sharp interface methods have been found to be particularly effective both for implementing sharp jumps and for resolving the interfacial velocity field. However, sharp velocity jumps render the solution susceptible to erroneous oscillations in pressure and also lead to spurious interface velocities. To implement phase change, the work in \cite{Hardt2008} employed point mass source terms derived from a physical basis for the evaporating mass flux. To avoid numerical instability, the authors smeared the mass source by solving a pseudo time-step diffusion equation. This measure however led to mass conservation issues due to non-symmetric integration over the distributed mass source region. The problem of spurious pressure oscillations related to point mass sources was also investigated by \cite{Schlottke2008}. Although their method is based on the VOF, the large pressure peaks associated with sharp mass source was observed to be similar to that for the interface tracking method. Such spurious fluctuation in pressure are essentially undesirable because the effect is globally transmitted in incompressible flow. Hence, the pressure field formation due to phase change need to be implemented with greater accuracy than is reported in current literature. The accuracy of interface advection in the presence of interfacial mass flux (mass flux conservation) has been discussed in \cite{tanguy2007level,tanguy2014benchmarks}. The authors found that the method of extending one phase velocity to entire domain suggested by Nguyen et al. in \cite{nguyen2001boundary} suffers from a lack of mass flux conservation when the density difference is high. To improve the solution, the authors impose a divergence-free condition for the extended velocity field by solving a constant coefficient Poisson equation. The approach has shown good results with enclosed bubble or droplet but is not general for more complex flow and requires additional solution of the linear system of equations. In current thesis, an improved approach that addresses both the numerical oscillation of pressure and the spurious interface velocity field is presented by featuring (i) continuous velocity and density fields within a thin interfacial region and (ii) temporal velocity correction steps to avoid unphysical pressure source term. Also I propose a general (iii) mass flux projection correction for improved mass flux conservation. The pressure and the temperature gradient jump condition are treated sharply. A series of one-dimensional and two-dimensional problems are solved to verify the performance of the new algorithm. Two-dimensional and cylindrical film boiling problems are also demonstrated and show good qualitative agreement with the experimental observations and heat transfer correlations. Finally, a study on Taylor bubble flow with heat transfer and phase change in a small vertical tube in axisymmetric coordinates is carried out using the new multiphase, phase change method.

Experimental and analytical investigation of refrigerant and lubricant migration

The off-cycle refrigerant mass migration has a direct influence on the on-cycle performance since compressor energy is necessary to redistribute the refrigerant mass. No studies, as of today, are available in the open literature which experimentally measured the lubricant migration within a refrigeration system during cycling or stop/start transients. Therefore, experimental procedures measuring the refrigerant and lubricant migration through the major components of a refrigeration system during stop/start transients were developed and implemented. Results identifying the underlying physics are presented. The refrigerant and lubricant migration of an R134a automotive A/C system-utilizing a fixed orifice tube, minichannel condenser, plate and fin evaporator, U-tube type accumulator and fixed displacement compressor-was measured across five sections divided by ball valves. Using the Quick-Closing Valve Technique (QCVT) combined with the Remove and Weigh Technique (RWT) using liquid nitrogen as the condensing agent resulted in a measurement uncertainty of 0.4 percent regarding the total refrigerant mass in the system. The determination of the lubricant mass distribution was achieved by employing three different techniques-Remove and Weigh, Mix and Sample, and Flushing. To employ the Mix and Sample Technique a device-called the Mix and Sample Device-was built. A method to separate the refrigerant and lubricant was developed with an accuracy-after separation-of 0.04 grams of refrigerant left in the lubricant. When applying the three techniques, the total amount of lubricant mass in the system was determined to within two percent. The combination of measurement results-infrared photography and high speed and real time videography-provide unprecedented insight into the mechanisms of refrigerant and lubricant migration during stop-start operation. During the compressor stop period, the primary refrigerant mass migration is caused by, and follows, the diminishing pressure difference across the expansion device. The secondary refrigerant migration is caused by a pressure gradient as a result of thermal nonequilibrium within the system and causes only vapor phase refrigerant migration. Lubricant migration is proportional to the refrigerant mass during the primary refrigerant mass migration. During the secondary refrigerant mass migration lubricant is not migrating. The start-up refrigerant mass migration is caused by an imbalance of the refrigerant mass flow rates across the compressor and expansion device. The higher compressor refrigerant mass flow rate was a result of the entrainment of foam into the U-tube of the accumulator. The lubricant mass migration during the start-up was not proportional to the refrigerant mass migration. The presence of water condensate on the evaporator affected the refrigerant mass migration during the compressor stop period. Caused by an evaporative cooling effect the evaporator held 56 percent of the total refrigerant mass in the system after three minutes of compressor stop time-compared to 25 percent when no water condensate was present on the evaporator coil. Foam entrainment led to a faster lubricant and refrigerant mass migration out of the accumulator than liquid entrainment through the hole at the bottom of the U-tube. The latter was observed for when water condensate was present on the evaporator coil because-as a result of the higher amount of refrigerant mass in the evaporator before start-up-the entrainment of foam into the U-tube of the accumulator ceased before the steady state refrigerant mass distribution was reached.

Analisi del rendimento di sistemi micro ORC di tipo sperimentale

In questo lavoro si analizza il rendimento isoentropico di diversi espansori adottati all’interno di sistemi micro-ORC (Organic Rankine Cycle). Si parte da una descrizione generale dei sistemi ORC, mettendone in evidenza le principali caratteristiche, il layout tipico, le differenze rispetto ad un ciclo Rankine tradizionale, e gli ambiti di utilizzo. Si procede ad una trattazione teorica del rendimento isoentropico del compressore e dell’espansore, specificando le ipotesi adottate nei calcoli e mettendo in luce la relazione tra rendimento isoentropico e politropico nell’uno e nell’altro apparato. Si passa poi alla descrizione delle quattro principali tipologie di espansori presenti in letteratura: scroll, screw, vane e piston, e si prosegue con l'analisi nel dettaglio della letteratura relativa alla valutazione dell’efficienza di questi quando utilizzati all’interno di un sistema micro-ORC. Infine, dopo aver descritto il sistema ORC del laboratorio di via Terracini del DIN, illustrandone layout, componenti principali, potenza scambiata all’interno dei componenti e modalità di calcolo adottata per la valutazione del rendimento isoentropico dell’espansore e del sistema complessivo, si confrontano i dati di efficienza di questo con quelli reperiti in letteratura. Il confronto del rendimento, dell'espansore e complessivo, del sistema del DIN, 33.8% e 1,818% rispettivamente, con quelli degli altri sistemi, è risultato di difficilmente valutazione a causa delle condizioni di forte off-design del sistema stesso. Dalla ricerca è inoltre emerso che i fluidi più utilizzati nella sperimentazione, e dunque capaci di migliori prestazioni, sono R245fa, R134a e R123. Per quel che riguarda infine gli espansori, nel range di potenza di 1-10 kW, lo scroll risulta essere il migliore.