磷酸肌醇信号途径对青扦花粉萌发和花粉管发育的调控作用及芦苇叶细胞壁结构的生理生态学研究

植物在长期的进化过程中，已经对其生存环境具备了各种适应对策。放牧影响下草原植物的生态适应策略，决定了其是否能够忍耐或者适应放牧生境从而维持自身的生存和种群的延续。研究植食性动物对植物的影响有助于制定合理的放牧制度和草地利用方式，从而为防止草原退化和恢复退化草地提供重要的理论依据;同时研究植物对放牧的响应策略，对于草原生物多样性的保护和草原生物资源的合理利用具有重要的理论和实践意义。 本文以中科院内蒙古草原生态系统定位研究站放牧综合试验样地中的小叶锦鸡儿为主要研究对象。通过长期不同放牧强度的放牧试验和唾液涂抹等模拟试验，从形态学、有性生殖、种子萌发和遗传多样性等方面，探讨了小叶锦鸡儿对放牧家畜（绵羊）采食的生物学响应。本研究得到以下主要结论： 1. 通过小叶锦鸡儿形态和有性生殖的实验，可以看到放牧改变了该种植物的形态和生殖特性，不同放牧强度对其影响的程度是不相同的。在啃食压力下，小叶锦鸡儿的营养、生殖和防御之间存在消长关系。随着放牧强度的增加，小叶锦鸡儿对营养器官和有性生殖器官的投资均减少，而对防御器官的投资有增加的趋势，主要体现在：个体的小型化（植株高度、叶轴长度、小叶大小）和果荚数目及成熟种子数都随着放牧强度的增加而明显减少;物理性防御器官――刺，其密度和长度都明显的增加。同时，放牧也对植物花粉的品质产生了消极影响。 2. 放牧不仅影响了植物体本身的生物学特性，而且影响了子代的生物学特性。不同放牧强度下的植株产生的种子，其萌发速率明显不同。同时放牧强度和沙埋深度对小叶锦鸡儿的出苗率均具有显著影响，随着沙埋深度增加，出苗率明显降低，0～2cm是其适宜出苗的沙埋深度;浅层沙埋处理下，轻度放牧和重度放牧的出苗率差异显著。与轻度放牧相比，重牧条件下同一沙埋深度的种子出苗时间明显推迟;在相同放牧压力下，沙埋深度也影响了出苗时间。 3. 采食活动对植物本身的形态、生殖以及子代的萌发特性都产生了影响;通过AFLP实验证明了小叶锦鸡儿在长期的放牧历史活动中已经发生了遗传多样性的变化，重度放牧强度下的植株与轻度放牧条件下的植株具有相对较远的遗传距离，也就是说，小叶锦鸡儿种群的分化与放牧强度具有密切的关系。 4. 三种不同生活型植物（灌木-小叶锦鸡儿、半灌木-冷蒿和草本-羊草）对绵羊唾液涂抹的响应不同，刈割和涂抹绵羊唾液能够增加植物的净地上生物量，并促进植株增加地上部分的光合产物投资。同时表明，简单的机械剪除不能够真正反应放牧家畜采食所产生的生物学效应。

Regulation of the pollen-specific actin-depolymerizing factor LIADF1

Pollen tube growth is dependent on a dynamic actin cytoskeleton, suggesting that actin-regulating proteins are involved. We have examined the regulation of the lily pollen-specific actin-depolymerizing factor (ADF) LIADF1. Its actin binding and depolymerizing activity is pH sensitive, inhibited by certain phosphoinositides, but not controlled by phosphorylation. Compared with its F-actin binding properties, its low activity in depolymerization assays has been used to explain why pollen ADF decorates F-actin in pollen grains. This low activity is incompatible with a role in increasing actin dynamics necessary to promote pollen tube growth. We have identified a plant homolog of actin-interacting protein, AIP1, which enhances the depolymerization of F-actin in the presence of LIADF1 by similar to60%. Both pollen ADF and pollen AIP1 bind F-actin in pollen grains but are mainly cytoplasmic in pollen tubes. Our results suggest that together these proteins remodel actin filaments as pollen grains enter and exit dormancy.

Cell wall composition regulates cell shape and growth behaviour in pollen tubes

L’une des particularités fondamentales caractérisant les cellules végétales des cellules animales est la présence de la paroi cellulaire entourant le protoplaste. La paroi cellulaire joue un rôle primordial dans (1) la protection du protoplaste, (2) est impliquée dans les mécanismes de filtration et (3) est le lieu de maintes réactions biochimiques nécessaires à la régulation du métabolisme et des propriétés mécaniques de la cellule. Les propriétés locales d’élasticité, d’extensibilité, de plasticité et de dureté des composants pariétaux déterminent la géométrie et la forme des cellules lors des processus de différentiation et de morphogenèse. Le but de ma thèse est de comprendre les rôles que jouent les différents composants pariétaux dans le modelage de la géométrie et le contrôle de la croissance des cellules végétales. Pour atteindre cet objectif, le modèle cellulaire sur lequel je me suis basé est le tube pollinique ou gamétophyte mâle. Le tube pollinique est une protubérance cellulaire qui se forme à partir du grain de pollen à la suite de son contact avec le stigmate. Sa fonction est la livraison des cellules spermatiques à l’ovaire pour effectuer la double fécondation. Le tube pollinique est une cellule à croissance apicale, caractérisée par la simple composition de sa paroi et par sa vitesse de croissance qui est la plus rapide du règne végétal. Ces propriétés uniques font du tube pollinique le modèle idéal pour l’étude des effets à courts termes du stress sur la croissance et le métabolisme cellulaire ainsi que sur les propriétés mécaniques de la paroi. La paroi du tube pollinique est composée de trois composantes polysaccharidiques : pectines, cellulose et callose et d’une multitude de protéines. Pour comprendre les effets que jouent ces différents composants dans la régulation de la croissance du tube pollinique, j’ai étudié les effets de mutations, de traitements enzymatiques, de l’hyper-gravité et de la gravité omni-directionnelle sur la paroi du tube pollinique. En utilisant des méthodes de modélisation mathématiques combinées à de la biologie moléculaire et de la microscopie à fluorescence et électronique à haute résolution, j’ai montré que (1) la régulation de la chimie des pectines est primordiale pour le contrôle du taux de croissance et de la forme du tube et que (2) la cellulose détermine le diamètre du tube pollinique en partie sub-apicale. De plus, j’ai examiné le rôle d’un groupe d’enzymes digestives de pectines exprimées durant le développement du tube pollinique : les pectate lyases. J’ai montré que ces enzymes sont requises lors de l’initiation de la germination du pollen. J’ai notamment directement prouvé que les pectate lyases sont sécrétées par le tube pollinique dans le but de faciliter sa pénétration au travers du style.

Implication des peptides RALFs dans les communications cellulaires lors du développement du gamétophyte femelle chez Solanum chacoense et Arabidopsis thaliana.

Chez les angiospermes, la reproduction passe par la double fécondation. Le tube pollinique délivre deux cellules spermatiques au sein du gamétophyte femelle. Une cellule féconde la cellule œuf pour produire un zygote; l’autre féconde la cellule centrale pour produire l’endosperme. Pour assurer un succès reproductif, le développement du gamétophyte femelle au sein de l’ovule doit établir un patron cellulaire qui favorise les interactions avec le tube pollinique et les cellules spermatiques. Pour ce faire, un dialogue doit s’établir entre les différentes cellules de l’ovule lors de son développement, de même que lors de la fécondation. D’ailleurs, plusieurs types de communications intercellulaires sont supposées suite à la caractérisation de plusieurs mutants développementaux. De même, ces communications semblent persister au sein du zygote et de l’endosperme pour permettre la formation d’un embryon viable au sein de la graine. Malgré les développements récents qui ont permis de trouver des molécules de signalisation supportant les modèles d’interactions cellulaires avancés par la communauté scientifique, les voies de signalisation sont de loin très incomplètes. Dans le but de caractériser des gènes encodant des protéines de signalisation potentiellement impliqués dans la reproduction chez Solanum chacoense, l’analyse d’expression des gènes de type RALF présents dans une banque d’ESTs (Expressed Sequence Tags) spécifiques à l’ovule après fécondation a été entreprise. RALF, Rapid Alcalinization Factor, est un peptide de 5 kDa qui fait partie de la superfamille des «protéines riches en cystéines (CRPs)», dont les rôles physiologiques au sein de la plante sont multiples. Cette analyse d’expression a conduit à une analyse approfondie de ScRALF3, dont l’expression au sein de la plante se limite essentiellement à l’ovule. L’analyse de plantes transgéniques d’interférence pour le gène ScRALF3 a révélé un rôle particulier lors de la mégagamétogénèse. Les plantes transgéniques présentent des divisions mitotiques anormales qui empêchent le développement complet du sac embryonnaire. Le positionnement des noyaux, de même que la synchronisation des divisions au sein du syncytium, semblent responsables de cette perte de progression lors de la mégagamétogénèse. L’isolement du promoteur de même que l’analyse plus précise d’expression au sein de l’ovule révèle une localisation sporophytique du transcrit. La voie de signalisation de l’auxine régule également la transcription de ScRALF3. De surcroît, ScRALF3 est un peptide empruntant la voie de sécrétion médiée par le réticulum endoplasmique et l’appareil de Golgi. En somme, ScRALF3 est un important facteur facilitant la communication entre le sporophyte et le gamétophyte pour amener à maturité le sac embryonnaire. L’identification d’un orthologue potentiel chez Arabidopsis thaliana a conduit à la caractérisation de AtRALF34. L’absence de phénotype lors du développement du sac embryonnaire suggère, cependant, de la redondance génétique au sein de la grande famille des gènes de type RALF. Néanmoins, les peptides RALFs apparaissent comme d’importants régulateurs lors de la reproduction chez Solanum chacoense et Arabidopsis thaliana.

Destins des S-RNases et interactions moléculaires dans le tube pollinique dans le cadre de l’auto-incompatibilité gamétophytique chez Solanum chacoense

L’auto-incompatibilité (AI) est une barrière reproductive prézygotique qui permet aux pistils d’une fleur de rejeter leur propre pollen. Les systèmes d’AI peuvent prévenir l’autofertilisation et ainsi limiter l’inbreeding. Dans l’AI gamétophytique, le génotype du pollen détermine son propre phénotype d’incompatibilité, et dans ce système, les déterminants mâles et femelles de l’AI sont codés par un locus multigénique et multi-allélique désigné le locus S. Chez les Solanaceae, le déterminant femelle de l’AI est une glycoprotéine stylaire extracellulaire fortement polymorphique possédant une activité ribonucléase et désignée S-RNase. Les S-RNases montrent un patron caractéristique de deux régions hypervariables (HVa et HVb), responsables de leur détermination allélique, et cinq régions hautement conservées (C1 à C5) impliquées dans l’activité catalytique ou la stabilisation structurelle de ces protéines. Dans ce travail, nous avons investigué plusieurs caractéristiques des S-RNases et identifié un nouveau ligand potentiel aux S-RNases chez Solanum chacoense. L’objectif de notre première étude était l’élucidation du rôle de la région C4 des S-RNases. Afin de tester l’hypothèse selon laquelle la région C4 serait impliquée dans le repliement ou la stabilité des S-RNases, nous avons généré un mutant dans lequel les quatre résidus chargés présents en région C4 furent remplacés par des résidus glycine. Cette protéine mutante ne s’accumulant pas à des niveaux détectables, la région C4 semble bien avoir un rôle structurel. Afin de vérifier si C4 est impliquée dans une liaison avec une autre protéine, nous avons généré le mutant R115G, dans lequel un acide aminé chargé fût éliminé afin de réduire les affinités de liaison dans cette région. Ce mutant n’affectant pas le phénotype de rejet pollinique, il est peu probable que la région C4 soit impliquée dans la liaison des S-RNases avec un ligand ou leur pénétration à l’intérieur des tubes polliniques. Enfin, le mutant K113R, dans lequel le seul résidu lysine conservé parmi toutes les S-RNases fût remplacé par un résidu arginine, fût généré afin de vérifier si cette lysine était un site potentiel d’ubiquitination des S-RNases. Toutefois, la dégradation des S-RNases ne fût pas inhibée. Ces résultats indiquent que C4 joue probablement un rôle structurel de stabilisation des S-RNases. Dans une seconde étude, nous avons analysé le rôle de la glycosylation des S-RNases, dont un site, en région C2, est conservé parmi toutes les S-RNases. Afin d’évaluer la possibilité que les sucres conjugués constituent une cible potentielle d’ubiquitination, nous avons généré une S11-RNase dont l‘unique site de glycosylation en C2 fût éliminé. Ce mutant se comporte de manière semblable à une S11-RNase de type sauvage, démontrant que l’absence de glycosylation ne confère pas un phénotype de rejet constitutif du pollen. Afin de déterminer si l’introduction d’un sucre dans la région HVa de la S11-RNase pourrait affecter le rejet pollinique, nous avons généré un second mutant comportant un site additionnel de glycosylation dans la région HVa et une troisième construction qui comporte elle aussi ce nouveau site mais dont le site en région C2 fût éliminé. Le mutant comportant deux sites de glycosylation se comporte de manière semblable à une S11-RNase de type sauvage mais, de manière surprenante, le mutant uniquement glycosylé en région HVa peut aussi rejeter le pollen d’haplotype S13. Nous proposons que la forme non glycosylée de ce mutant constitue un allèle à double spécificité, semblable à un autre allèle à double spécificité préalablement décrit. Il est intéressant de noter que puisque ce phénotype n’est pas observé dans le mutant comportant deux sites de glycosylation, cela suggère que les S-RNases ne sont pas déglycosylées à l’intérieur du pollen. Dans la dernière étude, nous avons réalisé plusieurs expériences d’interactions protéine-protéine afin d’identifier de potentiels interactants polliniques avec les S-RNases. Nous avons démontré que eEF1A, un composant de la machinerie de traduction chez les eucaryotes, peut lier une S11-RNase immobilisée sur résine concanavaline A. Des analyses de type pull-down utilisant la protéine eEF1A de S. chacoense étiquetée avec GST confirment cette interaction. Nous avons aussi montré que la liaison, préalablement constatée, entre eEF1A et l’actine est stimulée en présence de la S11-RNase, bien que cette dernière ne puisse directement lier l’actine. Enfin, nous avons constaté que dans les tubes polliniques incompatibles, l’actine adopte une structure agrégée qui co-localise avec les S-RNases. Ces résultats suggèrent que la liaison entre eEF1A et les S-RNases pourrait constituer un potentiel lien fonctionnel entre les S-RNases et l’altération du cytosquelette d’actine observée lors des réactions d’AI. Par ailleurs, si cette liaison est en mesure de titrer les S-RNases disponibles à l’intérieur du tube pollinique, ce mécanisme pourrait expliquer pourquoi des quantités minimales ou « seuils » de S-RNases sont nécessaires au déclenchement des réactions d’AI.

Studio molecolare dei meccanismi dell'autoincompatibilità gametofitica in pero europeo (Pyrus communis)

Self-incompatibility (SI) systems have evolved in many flowering plants to prevent self-fertilization and thus promote outbreeding. Pear and apple, as many of the species belonging to the Rosaceae, exhibit RNase-mediated gametophytic self-incompatibility, a widespread system carried also by the Solanaceae and Plantaginaceae. Pear orchards must for this reason contain at least two different cultivars that pollenize each other; to guarantee an efficient cross-pollination, they should have overlapping flowering periods and must be genetically compatible. This compatibility is determined by the S-locus, containing at least two genes encoding for a female (pistil) and a male (pollen) determinant. The female determinant in the Rosaceae, Solanaceae and Plantaginaceae system is a stylar glycoprotein with ribonuclease activity (S-RNase), that acts as a specific cytotoxin in incompatible pollen tubes degrading cellular RNAs. Since its identification, the S-RNase gene has been intensively studied and the sequences of a large number of alleles are available in online databases. On the contrary, the male determinant has been only recently identified as a pollen-expressed protein containing a F-box motif, called S-Locus F-box (abbreviated SLF or SFB). Since F-box proteins are best known for their participation to the SCF (Skp1 - Cullin - F-box) E3 ubiquitine ligase enzymatic complex, that is involved in protein degradation through the 26S proteasome pathway, the male determinant is supposed to act mediating the ubiquitination of the S-RNases, targeting them for the degradation in compatible pollen tubes. Attempts to clone SLF/SFB genes in the Pyrinae produced no results until very recently; in apple, the use of genomic libraries allowed the detection of two F-box genes linked to each S haplotype, called SFBB (S-locus F-Box Brothers). In Japanese pear, three SFBB genes linked to each haplotype were cloned from pollen cDNA. The SFBB genes exhibit S haplotype-specific sequence divergence and pollen-specific expression; their multiplicity is a feature whose interpretation is unclear: it has been hypothesized that all of them participate in the S-specific interaction with the RNase, but it is also possible that only one of them is involved in this function. Moreover, even if the S locus male and female determinants are the only responsible for the specificity of the pollen-pistil recognition, many other factors are supposed to play a role in GSI; these are not linked to the S locus and act in a S-haplotype independent manner. They can have a function in regulating the expression of S determinants (group 1 factors), modulating their activity (group 2) or acting downstream, in the accomplishment of the reaction of acceptance or rejection of the pollen tube (group 3). This study was aimed to the elucidation of the molecular mechanism of GSI in European pear (Pyrus communis) as well as in the other Pyrinae; it was divided in two parts, the first focusing on the characterization of male determinants, and the second on factors external to the S locus. The research of S locus F-box genes was primarily aimed to the identification of such genes in European pear, for which sequence data are still not available; moreover, it allowed also to investigate about the S locus structure in the Pyrinae. The analysis was carried out on a pool of varieties of the three species Pyrus communis (European pear), Pyrus pyrifolia (Japanese pear), and Malus × domestica (apple); varieties carrying S haplotypes whose RNases are highly similar were chosen, in order to check whether or not the same level of similarity is maintained also between the male determinants. A total of 82 sequences was obtained, 47 of which represent the first S-locus F-box genes sequenced from European pear. The sequence data strongly support the hypothesis that the S locus structure is conserved among the three species, and presumably among all the Pyrinae; at least five genes have homologs in the analysed S haplotypes, but the number of F-box genes surrounding the S-RNase could be even greater. The high level of sequence divergence and the similarity between alleles linked to highly conserved RNases, suggest a shared ancestral polymorphism also for the F-box genes. The F-box genes identified in European pear were mapped on a segregating population of 91 individuals from the cross 'Abbé Fétel' × 'Max Red Bartlett'. All the genes were placed on the linkage group 17, where the S locus has been placed both in pear and apple maps, and resulted strongly associated to the S-RNase gene. The linkage with the RNase was perfect for some of the F-box genes, while for others very rare single recombination events were identified. The second part of this study was focused on the research of other genes involved in the SI response in pear; it was aimed on one side to the identification of genes differentially expressed in compatible and incompatible crosses, and on the other to the cloning and characterization of the transglutaminase (TGase) gene, whose role may be crucial in pollen rejection. For the identification of differentially expressed genes, controlled pollinations were carried out in four combinations (self pollination, incompatible, half-compatible and fully compatible cross-pollination); expression profiles were compared through cDNA-AFLP. 28 fragments displaying an expression pattern related to compatibility or incompatibility were identified, cloned and sequenced; the sequence analysis allowed to assign a putative annotation to a part of them. The identified genes are involved in very different cellular processes or in defense mechanisms, suggesting a very complex change in gene expression following the pollen/pistil recognition. The pool of genes identified with this technique offers a good basis for further study toward a better understanding of how the SI response is carried out. Among the factors involved in SI response, moreover, an important role may be played by transglutaminase (TGase), an enzyme involved both in post-translational protein modification and in protein cross-linking. The TGase activity detected in pear styles was significantly higher when pollinated in incompatible combinations than in compatible ones, suggesting a role of this enzyme in the abnormal cytoskeletal reorganization observed during pollen rejection reaction. The aim of this part of the work was thus to identify and clone the pear TGase gene; the PCR amplification of fragments of this gene was achieved using primers realized on the alignment between the Arabidopsis TGase gene sequence and several apple EST fragments; the full-length coding sequence of the pear TGase gene was then cloned from cDNA, and provided a precious tool for further study of the in vitro and in vivo action of this enzyme.

Influence of climate changes on cross allergies: possible involvement of pollen transglutaminase

Allergies are a complex of symptoms derived from altered IgE-mediated reactions of the immune system towards substances known as allergens. Allergic sensibilization can be of food or respiratory origin and, in particular, apple and hazelnut allergens have been identified in pollens or fruits. Allergic cross-reactivity can occur in a patient reacting to similar allergens from different origins, justifying the research in both systems as in Europe a greater number of people suffers from apple fruit allergy, but little evidence exists about pollen. Apple fruit allergies are due to four different classes of allergens (Mal d 1, 2, 3, 4), whose allergenicity is related both to genotype and tissue specificity; therefore I have investigated their presence also in pollen at different time of germination to clarify the apple pollen allergenic potential. I have observed that the same four classes of allergens found in fruit are expressed at different levels also in pollen, and their presence might support that the apple pollen can be considered allergenic as the fruit, deducing that apple allergy could also be indirectly caused by sensitization to pollen. Climate changes resulting from increases in temperature and air pollution influence pollen allergenicity, responsible for the dramatic raise in respiratory allergies (hay fever, bronchial asthma, conjunctivitis). Although the link between climate change and pollen allergenicity is proven, the underlying mechanism is little understood. Transglutaminases (TGases), a class of enzymes able to post-translationally modify proteins, are activated under stress and involved in some inflammatory responses, enhancing the activity of pro-inflammatory phospholipase A2, suggesting a role in allergies. Recently, a calcium-dependent TGase activity has been identified in the pollen cell wall, raising the possibility that pollen TGase may have a role in the modification of pollen allergens reported above, thus stabilizing them against proteases. This enzyme can be involved also in the transamidation of proteins present in the human mucosa interacting with surface pollen or, finally, the enzyme itself can represent an allergen, as suggested by studies on celiac desease. I have hypothesized that this pollen enzyme can be affected by climate changes and be involved in exhacerbating allergy response. The data presented in this thesis represent a scientific basis for future development of studies devoted to verify the hypothesis set out here. First, I have demonstrated the presence of an extracellular TGase on the surface of the grain observed either at the apical or the proximal parts of the pollen-tube by laser confocal microscopy (Iorio et al., 2008), that plays an essential role in apple pollen-tube growth, as suggested by the arrest of tube elongation by TGase inhibitors, such as EGTA or R281. Its involvement in pollen tube growth is mainly confirmed by the data of activity and gene expression, because TGase showed a peak between 15 min and 30 min of germination, when this process is well established, and an optimal pH around 6.5, which is close to that recorded for the germination medium. Moreover, data show that pollen TGase can be a glycoprotein as the glycosylation profile is linked both with the activation of the enzyme and with its localization at the pollen cell wall during germination, because from the data presented seems that the active form of TGase involved in pollen tube growth and pollen-stylar interaction is more exposed and more weakly bound to the cell wall. Interestingly, TGase interacts with fibronectin (FN), a putative SAMs or psECM component, inducing possibly intracellular signal transduction during the interaction between pollen-stylar occuring in the germination process, since a protein immunorecognised by anti-FN antibody is also present in pollen, in particular at the level of pollen grain cell wall in a punctuate pattern, but also along the shank of the pollen tube wall, in a similar pattern that recalls the signal obtained with the antibody anti TGase. FN represents a good substrate for the enzyme activity, better than DMC usually used as standard substrate for animal TGase. Thus, this pollen enzyme, necessary for its germination, is exposed on the pollen surface and consequently can easily interact with mucosal proteins, as it has been found germinated pollen in studies conducted on human mucus (Forlani, personal communication). I have obtained data that TGase activity increases in a very remarkable way when pollen is exposed to stressful conditions, such as climate changes and environmental pollution. I have used two different species of pollen, an aero allergenic (hazelnut, Corylus avellana) pollen, whose allergenicity is well documented, and an enthomophylus (apple, Malus domestica) pollen, which is not yet well characterized, to compare data on their mechanism of action in response to stressors. The two pollens have been exposed to climate changes (different temperatures, relative humidity (rH), acid rain at pH 5.6 and copper pollution (3.10 µg/l)) and showed an increase in pollen surface TGase activity that is not accompanied to an induced expression of TGase immunoreactive protein with AtPNG1p. Probably, climate change induce an alteration or damage to pollen cell wall that carries the pollen grains to release their content in the medium including TGase enzyme, that can be free to carry out its function as confirmed by the immunolocalisation and by the in situ TGase activity assay data; morphological examination indicated pollen damage, viability significantly reduced and in acid rain conditions an early germination of apple pollen, thus possibly enhancing the TGase exposure on pollen surface. Several pollen proteins were post-translationally modified, as well as mammalian sPLA2 especially with Corylus pollen, which results in its activation, potentially altering pollen allergenicity and inflammation. Pollen TGase activity mimicked the behaviour of gpl TGase and AtPNG1p in the stimulation of sPLA2, even if the regulatory mechanism seems different to gpl TGase, because pollen TGase favours an intermolecular cross-linking between various molecules of sPLA2, giving rise to high-molecular protein networks normally more stable. In general, pollens exhibited a significant endogenous phospholipase activity and it has been observed differences according to the allergenic (Corylus) or not-well characterized allergenic (Malus) attitude of the pollen. However, even if with a different intensity level in activation, pollen enzyme share the ability to activate the sPLA2, thus suggesting an important regulatory role for the activation of a key enzyme of the inflammatory response, among which my interest was addressed to pollen allergy. In conclusion, from all the data presented, mainly presence of allergens, presence of an extracellular TGase, increasing in its activity following exposure to environmental pollution and PLA2 activation, I can conclude that also Malus pollen can behave as potentially allergenic. The mechanisms described here that could affect the allergenicity of pollen, maybe could be the same occurring in fruit, paving the way for future studies in the identification of hyper- and hypo- allergenic cultivars, in preventing environmental stressor effects and, possibly, in the production of transgenic plants.

Directional Guidance of Nicotiana alata Pollen Tubes in Vitro and on the Stigma1

Pollen tubes navigate the route from stigma to ovule with great accuracy, but the cues that guide them along this route are not known. We reproduced the environment on the stigma of Nicotiana alata by immersing pollen in stigma exudate or oil close to an interface with an aqueous medium. The growth of pollen in this culture system mimicked growth on stigmas: pollen grains hydrated and germinated, and pollen tubes grew toward the aqueous medium. The rate-limiting step in pollen germination was the movement of water through the surrounding exudate or oil. By elimination of other potential guidance cues, we conclude that the directional supply of water probably determined the axis of polarity of pollen tubes and resulted in growth toward the interface. We propose that a gradient of water in exudate is a guidance cue for pollen tubes on the stigma and that the composition of the exudate must be such that it is permeable enough for pollen hydration to occur but not so permeable that the supply of water becomes nondirectional. Pollen tube penetration of the stigma may be the most frequently occurring hydrotropic response of higher plants.

Arabidopsis Rho-Related GTPases: Differential Gene Expression in Pollen and Polar Localization in Fission Yeast1

The Rho small GTP-binding proteins are versatile, conserved molecular switches in eukaryotic signal transduction. Plants contain a unique subfamily of Rho-GTPases called Rop (Rho-related GTPases from plants). Our previous studies involving injection of antibodies indicated that the pea Rop GTPase Rop1Ps is critical for pollen tube growth. In this study we show that overexpression of an apparent Arabidopsis ortholog of Rop1Ps, Rop1At, induces isotropic cell growth in fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe) and that green fluorescence protein-tagged Rop1At displays polar localization to the site of growth in yeast. We found that Rop1At and two other Arabidopsis Rops, Rop3At and Rop5At, are all expressed in mature pollen. All three pollen Rops fall into the same subgroup as Rop1Ps and diverge from those Rops that are not expressed in mature pollen, suggesting a coupling of the structural conservation of Rop GTPases to their gene expression in pollen. However, pollen-specific transcript accumulation for Rop1At is much higher than that for Rop3At and Rop5At. Furthermore, Rop1At is specifically expressed in anthers, whereas Rop3At and Rop5At are also expressed in vegetative tissues. In transgenic plants containing the Rop1At promoter:GUS fusion gene, GUS is specifically expressed in mature pollen and pollen tubes. We propose that Rop1At may play a predominant role in the regulation of polarized cell growth in pollen, whereas its close relatives Rop3At and Rop5At may be functionally redundant to Rop1At in pollen.

Hexose Transport in Growing Petunia Pollen Tubes and Characterization of a Pollen-Specific, Putative Monosaccharide Transporter1

We investigated the molecular and physiological processes of sugar uptake and metabolism during pollen tube growth and plant fertilization. In vitro germination assays showed that petunia (Petunia hybrida) pollen can germinate and grow not only in medium containing sucrose (Suc) as a carbon source, but also in medium containing the monosaccharides glucose (Glc) or fructose (Fru). Furthermore, high-performance liquid chromatography analysis demonstrated a rapid and complete conversion of Suc into equimolar amounts of Glc and Fru when pollen was cultured in a medium containing 2% Suc. This indicates the presence of wall-bound invertase activity and uptake of sugars in the form of monosaccharides by the growing pollen tube. A cDNA designated pmt1 (petunia monosaccharide transporter 1), which is highly homologous to plant monosaccharide transporters, was isolated from petunia. Pmt1 belongs to a small gene family and is expressed specifically in the male gametophyte, but not in any other vegetative or floral tissues. Pmt1 is activated after the first pollen mitosis, and high levels of mRNA accumulate in mature and germinating pollen. A model describing the transport of sugars to the style, the conversion of Suc into Glc and Fru, and the active uptake by a monosaccharide transporter into the pollen tube is presented.

Pollen specific expression of maize genes encoding actin depolymerizing factor-like proteins.

In pollen development, a dramatic reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton takes place during the passage of the pollen grain into dormancy and on activation of pollen tube growth. A role for actin-binding proteins is implicated and we report here the identification of a small gene family in maize that encodes actin depolymerizing factor (ADF)-like proteins. The ADF group of proteins are believed to control actin polymerization and depolymerization in response to both intracellular and extracellular signals. Two of the maize genes ZmABP1 and ZmABP2 are expressed specifically in pollen and germinating pollen suggesting that the protein products may be involved in pollen actin reorganization. A third gene, ZmABP3, encodes a protein only 56% and 58% identical to ZmABP1 and ZmABP2, respectively, and its expression is suppressed in pollen and germinated pollen. The fundamental biochemical characteristics of the ZmABP proteins has been elucidated using bacterially expressed ZmABP3 protein. This has the ability to bind monomeric actin (G-actin) and filamentous actin (F-actin). Moreover, it decreases the viscosity of polymerized actin solutions consistent with an ability to depolymerize filaments. These biochemical characteristics, taken together with the sequence comparisons, support the inclusion of the ZmABP proteins in the ADF group.

Pex1, a pollen-specific gene with an extensin-like domain.

We report here the identification of a pollen-specific gene from Zea mays that contains multiple Ser-(Pro)n repeats, the motif found in the cell wall-associated extensins. Sequence analysis reveals that the encoded protein has a putative globular domain at the N terminus and an extensin-like domain at the C terminus. The Pex1 (pollen extensin-like) gene is expressed exclusively in pollen, not in vegetative or female tissues, and is not induced in leaves upon wounding. We propose that the encoded protein may have a role in reproduction, either as a structural element deposited in the pollen tube wall during its rapid growth or as a sexual recognition molecule that interacts with partner molecules in the pistil.

LeProT1, a Transporter for Proline, Glycine Betaine, and γ-Amino Butyric Acid in Tomato Pollen

During maturation, pollen undergoes a period of dehydration accompanied by the accumulation of compatible solutes.Solute import across the pollen plasma membrane, which occurs via proteinaceous transporters, is required to support pollen development and also for subsequent germination and pollen tube growth. Analysis of the free amino acid composition of various tissues in tomato revealed that the proline content in flowers was 60 times higher than in any other organ analyzed. Within the floral organs, proline was confined predominantly to pollen, where it represented >70 of total free amino acids. Uptake experiments demonstrated that mature as well as germinated pollen rapidly take up proline. To identify proline transporters in tomato pollen, we isolated genes homologous to Arabidopsis proline transporters. LeProT1 was specifically expressed both in mature and germinating pollen, as demonstrated by RNA in situ hybridization. Expression in a yeast mutant demonstrated that LeProT1 transports proline and γ-amino butyric acid with low affinity and glycine betaine with high affinity. Direct uptake and competition studies demonstrate that LeProT1 constitutes a general transporter for compatible solutes.

Expression-based and co-localization detection of arabinogalactan protein 6 and arabinogalactan protein 11 interactors in Arabidopsis pollen and pollen tubes

Arabinogalactan proteins (AGPs) are cell wall proteoglycans that have been shown to be important for pollen development. An Arabidopsis double null mutant for two pollen-specific AGPs (agp6 agp11) showed reduced pollen tube growth and compromised response to germination cues in vivo. A microarray experiment was performed on agp6 agp11 pollen tubes to search for genetic interactions in the context of pollen tube growth. A yeast two-hybrid experiment for AGP6 and AGP11 was also designed.

Reciprocal and advanced generation hybrids between Corymbia citriodora and C-torelliana: forestry breeding and the risk of gene flow

Corymbia F1 hybrids have high potential for plantation forestry; however, little is known of their reproductive biology and potential for genetic pollution of native Corymbia populations. This study aims to quantify the influence of reproductive isolating barriers on the success of novel reciprocal and advanced generation Corymbia hybrids. Two maternal taxa, Corymbia citriodora subsp. citriodora and Corymbia torelliana, were pollinated using five paternal taxa, C. citriodora subsp. citriodora, C. torelliana, one C. torelliana x C. citriodora subsp. citriodora hybrid and two C. torelliana x C. citriodora subsp. variegata hybrids. Pollen tube, embryo and seed development were assessed. Reciprocal hybridisation between C. citriodora subsp. citriodora and C. torelliana was successful. Advanced generation hybrids were also created when C. citriodora subsp. citriodora or C. torelliana females were backcrossed with F1 hybrid taxa. Prezygotic reproductive isolation was identified via reduced pollen tube numbers in the style and reduced numbers of ovules penetrated by pollen tubes. Reproductive isolation was weakest within the C. citriodora subsp. citriodora maternal taxon, with two hybrid backcrosses producing equivalent capsule and seed yields to the intraspecific cross. High hybridising potential was identified between all Corymbia species and F1 taxa studied. This provides opportunities for advanced generation hybrid breeding, allowing desirable traits to be amplified. It also indicates risks of gene flow between plantation and native Corymbia populations.