Acridine orange leukocyte fluorography in mice

Simultaneous non-invasive visualization of blood vessels and nerves in patients can be obtained in the eye. The retinal vasculature is a target of many retinopathies. Inflammation, readily manifest by leukocyte adhesion to the endothelial lining, is a key pathophysiological mechanism of many retinopathies, making it a valuable and ubiquitous target for disease research. Leukocyte fluorography has been extensively used in the past twenty years; however, fluorescent markers, visualization techniques, and recording methods have differed between studies. The lack of detailed protocol papers regarding leukocyte fluorography, coupled with lack of uniformity between studies, has led to a paucity of standards for leukocyte transit (velocity, adherence, extravasation) in the retina. Here, we give a detailed description of a convenient method using acridine orange (AO) and a commercially available scanning laser ophthalmoscope (SLO, HRA-OCT Spectralis) to view leukocyte behavior in the mouse retina. Normal mice are compared to mice with acute and chronic inflammation. This method can be readily adopted in many research labs.

Differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells to cells similar to cord-blood endothelial colony-forming cells

The ability to differentiate human pluripotent stem cells into endothelial cells with properties of cord-blood endothelial colony–forming cells (CB-ECFCs) may enable the derivation of clinically relevant numbers of highly proliferative blood vessel–forming cells to restore endothelial function in patients with vascular disease. We describe a protocol to convert human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) or embryonic stem cells (hESCs) into cells similar to CB-ECFCs at an efficiency of >10⁸ ECFCs produced from each starting pluripotent stem cell. The CB-ECFC-like cells display a stable endothelial phenotype with high clonal proliferative potential and the capacity to form human vessels in mice and to repair the ischemic mouse retina and limb, and they lack teratoma formation potential. We identify Neuropilin-1 (NRP-1)-mediated activation of KDR signaling through VEGF₁₆₅ as a critical mechanism for the emergence and maintenance of CB-ECFC-like cells.

Immunohistochemical study of pig retinal development

PURPOSE: The pig eye is similar to the human eye in terms of anatomy, vasculature, and photoreceptor distribution, and therefore provides an attractive animal model for research into retinal disease. The purpose of this study was to characterize retinal histology in the developing and mature pig retina using antibodies to well established retinal cell markers commonly used in rodents.

METHODS: Eyes were enucleated from fetuses in the 9th week of gestation, 1 week old piglets and 6 months old adult animals. Eyeglobes were fixed and cryosectioned. A panel of antibodies to well established retinal markers was employed for immunohistochemistry. Fluorescently labeled secondary antibodies were used for signal detection, and images were acquired by confocal microscopy. Mouse retina at postnatal day (P) 5 was used as a reference for this study to compare progression of histogenesis. Most of the primary antibodies have previously been used on mouse tissue.

RESULTS: Most of the studied markers were detected in midgestation pig retina, and the majority had a similar distribution in pig as in P5 mouse retina. However, rhodopsin immunolabeling was detected in pig retina at midgestation but not in P5 mouse retina. Contrary to findings in all rodents, horizontal cells were Islet1-positive and cones were calbindin-immunoreactive in pig retina, as has also been shown for the primate retina. Recoverin and rhodopsin immunolabeling revealed an increase in the length of photoreceptor segments in 6 months, compared to 1 week old animals.

CONCLUSIONS: Comparison with the published data on human retina revealed similar marker distribution and histogenesis progression in the pig and human retina, supporting the pig as a valuable animal model for studies on retinal disease and repair. Furthermore, this study provides information about the dynamics of retinal histogenesis in the pig and validates a panel of antibodies that reliably detects developing and mature retinal cell phenotypes in the pig retina.

Expression des nétrines dans la rétine de souris adulte

Les nétrines sont une petite famille de protéines de guidage axonal qui peuvent attirer des axones ou en repousser d’autres lors du développement neuronal. Lors du développement de la rétine, les axones des cellules ganglionnaires de la rétine (CGR) sont attirés vers une source de nétrines au niveau du disque optique leur permettant de quitter la rétine et de former le nerf optique. Afin de pouvoir caractériser le rôle des nétrines dans le système visuel adulte, nous avons investigué l’expression des nétrines et leurs récepteurs dans la rétine de souris adulte. Alors qu’aucune expression de la nétrine-1 n’a été détectée dans la rétine adulte, l’expression de la nétrine-3 a été abondamment détectée au niveau des CGR et des cellules amacrines. Nous démontrons aussi que les récepteurs des nétrines sont exprimés dans la rétine adulte. Alors que DCC semble être confiné au niveau des axones des CGR, néogénine est retrouvé dans les dendrites des CGR et des cellules horizontales. Quant aux protéines de la famille des récepteurs homologues à UNC-5, UNC5B a été détecté dans les somas des CGR et UNC5C dans les cellules de Müller. La découverte que nétrine-3 et ses récepteurs sont abondamment exprimés dans plusieurs types cellulaires de la rétine adulte leur suggère un rôle dans le fonctionnement du système visuel mature.

Connexin-mediated communication controls cell proliferation and is essential in retinal histogenesis

Connexin (Cx) channels and hemichannels are involved in essential processes during nervous system development such as apoptosis, propagation of spontaneous activity and interkinetic nuclear movement. In the first part of this study, we extensively characterized Cx gene and protein expression during retinal histogenesis. We observed distinct spatio-temporal patterns among Studied Cx and an overriding, ubiquitous presence of Cx45 in progenitor cells. The role of Cx-mediated communication was assessed by using broad-spectrum (carbenoxotone, CBX) and Cx36/Cx50 channel-specific (quinine) blockers. In vivo application of CBX, but not quinine, caused remarkable reduction in retinal thickness, suggesting changes in cell proliferation/apoptosis ratio. Indeed, we observed a decreased number of mitotic cells in CBX-injected retinas, with no significant changes in the expression of PCNA, a marker for cells in proliferative state. Taken together, Our results pointed a pivotal role of Cx45 in the developing retina. Moreover, this study revealed that Cx-mediated Communication is essential in retinal histogenesis, particularly in the control of cell proliferation. (C) 2009 ISDN. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Blocking of Connexin-Mediated Communication Promotes Neuroprotection during Acute Degeneration Induced by Mechanical Trauma

Accruing evidence indicates that connexin (Cx) channels in the gap junctions (GJ) are involved in neurodegeneration after injury. However, studies using KO animal models endowed apparently contradictory results in relation to the role of coupling in neuroprotection. We analyzed the role of Cx-mediated communication in a focal lesion induced by mechanical trauma of the retina, a model that allows spatial and temporal definition of the lesion with high reproducibility, permitting visualization of the focus, penumbra and adjacent areas. Cx36 and Cx43 exhibited distinct gene expression and protein levels throughout the neurodegeneration progress. Cx36 was observed close to TUNEL-positive nuclei, revealing the presence of this protein surrounding apoptotic cells. The functional role of cell coupling was assessed employing GJ blockers and openers combined with lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assay, a direct method for evaluating cell death/viability. Carbenoxolone (CBX), a broad-spectrum GJ blocker, reduced LDH release after 4 hours, whereas quinine, a Cx36-channel specific blocker, decreased LDH release as early as 1 hour after lesion. Furthermore, analysis of dying cell distribution confirmed that the use of GJ blockers reduced apoptosis spread. Accordingly, blockade of GJ communication during neurodegeneration with quinine, but not CBX, caused downregulation of initial and effector caspases. To summarize, we observed specific changes in Cx gene expression and protein distribution during the progress of retinal degeneration, indicating the participation of these elements in acute neurodegeneration processes. More importantly, our results revealed that direct control of GJ channels permeability may take part in reliable neuroprotection strategies aimed to rapid, fast treatment of mechanical trauma in the retina.

Charakterisierung von inhibitorischen, glyzinergen Synapsen bei Amakrinzellen der Säugernetzhaut

Amakrinzellen sind hemmende Interneurone der Netzhaut. Sie exprimieren erregende, ionotrope Glutamat-Rezeptoren und hemmende Glyzin- bzw. GABA-Rezeptoren. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden die Glyzinrezeptoren von Amakrinzellen mit Hilfe der „Patch Clamp“ Technik in Wildtyp- und Glyzin-Rezeptor Knock-out-Mäusen (Glra1spd-ot, Glra2-/-, Glra3-/-) untersucht. In Schnitten und Ganzpräparaten von akut isolierten Netzhäuten wurden Glyzin-induzierte und spontane inhibitorische postsynaptische Ströme (sIPSCs) gemessen. Die Untersuchungen beschränkten sich auf eine Gruppe von Amakrinzellen, die sich durch ein relativ kleines Dendritenfeld auszeichnen, das alle Schichten der IPL durchzieht. Dabei wurden die Ströme von zwei Typen von Amakrinzellen, den AII-Zellen und den NF-Zellen, miteinander verglichen. Alle untersuchten Amakrinzellen reagierten mit einem Stromfluss über die Membran, wenn Glyzin appliziert wurde. Bei AII-Zellen war die Amplitude des Stromes bei der Glra3-/--Maus um etwa 50 % reduziert, während bei den anderen Mauslinien kein Unterschied zum Wildtyp festgestellt wurde. Bei NF-Zellen wurde nur ein geringer Unterschied der Stromamplituden zwischen Wildtyp und Mutanten gefunden. Er war am deutlichsten bei der Glra2-/--Maus. Picrotoxinin ist ein effektiver Antagonist von homomeren Glyzinrezeptoren, während heteromere Glyzinrezeptoren relativ unempfindlich sind. Die Wirkung von Picrotoxinin war bei allen untersuchten Zellen ähnlich und reduzierte die Glyzinantwort um etwa 25 - 30 %. Dieser Effekt war unabhängig von der Mauslinie. Amakrinzellen exprimieren also zum Großteil heteromere Rezeptoren Zur Untersuchung der synaptischen Glyzinrezeptoren der Amakrinzellen wurden die spontanen inhibitorischen postsynaptischen Ströme dieser Zellen gemessen und deren Amplituden und Kinetiken bestimmt. Dabei unterschieden sich die Zeitkonstanten der Deaktivierungs/Desensitivierungskinetik (τw) von AII- und NF-Zellen, wohingegen die Aktivierungszeit nicht voneinander abwich. Spontane IPSCs, die von AII-Amakrinzellen abgeleitet wurden, hatten eine mittlere Zeitkonstante von τ = 11 ms und streuten zwischen 5 und 30 ms. Die Zeitkonstanten der sIPSCs von NF-Amakrinzellen lagen zwischen 10 und 50 ms und wiesen eine mittlere Zeitkonstante von τw = 27 ms auf. Die unterschiedlichen Zeitkonstanten spiegeln die Zusammensetzung der α-Untereinheiten des Glyzinrezeptors wider. AII-Zellen in der Glra1-/-- und in der Glra2-/--Maus hatten vergleichbare Zeitkonstanten wie die AII-Zellen im Wildtyp. Bei der Glra3-/--Maus konnten bei 50 untersuchten AII-Amakrinzellen keine sIPSCs gemessen werden. Dies und die Ergebnisse der Glyzin-induzierten Ströme von AII-Zellen lassen darauf schließen, dass die glyzinergen Synapsen dieser Zellen bevorzugt die α3-Untereinheit enthalten. Bei NF-Amakrinzellen konnte kein Unterschied zwischen Wildtyp-, Glra1spd-ot- und Glra3-/--Mäusen festgestellt werden. Dagegen zeigten die sIPSCs der NF-Amakrinzellen der Glra2-/--Maus signifikant längere Zeitkonstanten. Der Mittelwert verlängerte sich von 27 ms auf 69 ms und es war eine breitere Streuung mit Zeitkonstanten zwischen 15 und 200 ms zu sehen. Die glyzinergen Synapsen der NF-Zellen enthalten vor allem die α2-Untereinheit des Glyzinrezeptors. Die Zeitkonstanten der sIPSCs sind unabhängig von der Verteilung ihrer jeweiligen Amplituden, und zwischen Wildtyp- und KO-Mäusen wurden keine Unterschiede in den Amplituden der sIPSCs beobachtet. Während der Untersuchungen wurden sporadisch noch weitere Amakrinzellen, vor allem „widefield“- (WF) Zellen abgeleitet. Die Verteilungen der Zeitkonstanten der sIPSCs dieser Zellen streuten zwischen 8 und über 100 ms. Dabei wurden Zeitkonstanten gemessen, die noch langsamer waren als die von NF-Amakrinzellen und bei einigen WF-Zellen wurden mittlere Zeitkonstanten von mehr als 50 ms beobachtet. Diese Ergebnisse zeigen, dass unterschiedliche Klassen von Amakrinzellen verschiedene α-Untereinheiten des Glyzinrezeptors in den Synapsen exprimieren. Dies hat Auswirkung auf die Kinetik der glyzinergen Hemmung bei diesen Zellen und lässt darauf schließen, dass sie bei der zeitlichen Modulation der Lichtsignale unterschiedliche Aufgaben haben.

Impaired pericyte recruitment and abnormal retinal angiogenesis as a result of angiopoietin-2 overexpression

Angiopoietin-2 (Ang2) is among the relevant growth factors induced by hypoxia and plays an important role in the initiation of retinal neovascularizations. Ang2 is also involved in incipient diabetic retinopathy, as it may cause pericyte loss. To investigate the impact of Ang2 on developmental and hypoxia-induced angiogenesis, we used a transgenic mouse line overexpressing human Ang2 in the mouse retina. Transgenic mice displayed a reduced coverage of capillaries with pericytes (-14%; p < 0.01) and a 46% increase of vascular density of the capillary network at postnatal day 10 compared to wild type mice. In the model of oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR), Ang2 overexpression resulted in enhanced preretinal (+103%) and intraretinal neovascularization (+29%). Newly formed intraretinal vessels in OIR were also pericyte-deficient (-26%; p < 0.01). The total expression of Ang2 in transgenic mice was seven-fold, compared with wild type controls. Ang2 modulated expression of genes encoding VEGF (+65%) and Ang1 (+79%) in transgenic animals. These data suggest that Ang2 is involved in pericyte recruitment, and modulates intraretinal, and preretinal vessel formation in the eye under physiological and pathological conditions.

Molecular genetic analyses of extracellular signaling pathways during murine retinal development

Extracellular signaling pathways initiated by secreted proteins are important in the co-ordination of tissue interactions in multi-cellular organisms, particularly during embryonic development. These signaling cascades direct diverse cellular events, including proliferation, differentiation and migration, in both autocrine and paracrine modes. In adult animals, abnormal function of these proteins often results in degenerative and tumourigenic syndromes. In this study, I have focused on elucidating the role of Bone Morphogenetic Protein (Bmp) signal transduction during neuronal specification and differentiation in the vertebrate embryo, using the mouse retina as a model. Using tissue-specific conditional knock-out approaches, the consequences of genetic loss-of-function of this signaling pathway on retinal physiology were examined. Mutant mice lacking Bmp type I receptor function displayed a range of retinal phenotypes, each of which appeared to be regulated at a different threshold of Bmp receptor activity. Novel essential functions for Bmp signaling were uncovered for retinal neurogenesis, cell survival, and axonal pathfinding at the optic disc. Further, BmprIa and BmprIa exhibited genetic interactions suggestive of functional redundancy. To further characterize the underlying molecular bases for the pleiotropic effects of Bmp receptors, retina-specific loss-of-function mutants of the obligate Bmp-activated transcriptional mediator Smad4 were generated. A comparison of the retina-specific Smad4 mutant phenotypes with those of the Bmp receptor mutant retina revealed that only a subset of retinal phenotypes, namely optic disc axon pathfinding and axial patterning were common for both classes of mutant animals. Thus, these results suggest that, contrary to the classic scheme of Bmp signal transduction, Smad4-independent pathways may be operative downstream of the type I receptors. Indeed, such alternative intracellular signaling cascades may constitute a molecular basis for the multiple cellular responses elicited by Bmp signaling. Finally, I tested whether the potential Bmp pathway targets, the extracellular ligands Fgf9 and Fgf15, mediate essential cellular processes in the retina. The analyses of Fgf9 −/−; Fgf15−/− mutant mice posit a novel shared role for these genes in intra-retinal axon pathfinding. Collectively, these studies have elucidated part of the molecular machinery directing mammalian neuro-retinal development, and provided useful in vivo models to study visual function. ^

Abnormal photoresponses and light-induced apoptosis in rods lacking rhodopsin kinase

Phosphorylation is thought to be an essential first step in the prompt deactivation of photoexcited rhodopsin. In vitro, the phosphorylation can be catalyzed either by rhodopsin kinase (RK) or by protein kinase C (PKC). To investigate the specific role of RK, we inactivated both alleles of the RK gene in mice. This eliminated the light-dependent phosphorylation of rhodopsin and caused the single-photon response to become larger and longer lasting than normal. These results demonstrate that RK is required for normal rhodopsin deactivation. When the photon responses of RK−/− rods did finally turn off, they did so abruptly and stochastically, revealing a first-order backup mechanism for rhodopsin deactivation. The rod outer segments of RK−/− mice raised in 12-hr cyclic illumination were 50% shorter than those of normal (RK+/+) rods or rods from RK−/− mice raised in constant darkness. One day of constant light caused the rods in the RK−/− mouse retina to undergo apoptotic degeneration. Mice lacking RK provide a valuable model for the study of Oguchi disease, a human RK deficiency that causes congenital stationary night blindness.

Vitamin B2-based blue-light photoreceptors in the retinohypothalamic tract as the photoactive pigments for setting the circadian clock in mammals

In mammals the retina contains photoactive molecules responsible for both vision and circadian photoresponse systems. Opsins, which are located in rods and cones, are the pigments for vision but it is not known whether they play a role in circadian regulation. A subset of retinal ganglion cells with direct projections to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) are at the origin of the retinohypothalamic tract that transmits the light signal to the master circadian clock in the SCN. However, the ganglion cells are not known to contain rhodopsin or other opsins that may function as photoreceptors. We have found that the two blue-light photoreceptors, cryptochromes 1 and 2 (CRY1 and CRY2), recently discovered in mammals are specifically expressed in the ganglion cell and inner nuclear layers of the mouse retina. In addition, CRY1 is expressed at high level in the SCN and oscillates in this tissue in a circadian manner. These data, in conjunction with the established role of CRY2 in photoperiodism in plants, lead us to propose that mammals have a vitamin A-based photopigment (opsin) for vision and a vitamin B2-based pigment (cryptochrome) for entrainment of the circadian clock.

POU domain factor Brn-3b is required for the development of a large set of retinal ganglion cells.

The three members of the Brn-3 family of POU domain transcription factors are found in highly restricted sets of central nervous system neurons. Within the retina, these factors are present only within subsets of ganglion cells. We show here that in the developing mouse retina, Brn-3b protein is first observed in presumptive ganglion cell precursors as they begin to migrate from the zone of dividing neuroblasts to the future ganglion cell layer, and that targeted disruption of the Brn-3b gene leads in the homozygous state to a selective loss of 70% of retinal ganglion cells. In Brn-3b (-/-) mice other neurons within the retina and brain are minimally or not at all affected. These experiments indicate that Brn-3b plays an essential role in the development of specific ganglion cell types.

Glycine receptors: A new therapeutic target in pain pathways

Although glycine receptor Cl- channels (GlyRs) have long been known to mediate inhibitory neurotransmission onto spinal nociceptive neurons, their therapeutic potential for peripheral analgesia has received little attention. However, it has been shown that alpha 3-subunit-containing GlyRs are concentrated into regions of the spinal cord dorsal horn where nociceptive afferents terminate. Furthermore, inflammatory mediators specifically inhibit alpha 3-containing GlyRs, and deletion of the murine alpha 3 gene confers insensitivity to chronic inflammatory pain. This strongly implicates GlyRs in the inflammation-mediated disinhibition of centrally projecting nociceptive neurons. Future therapies aimed at specifically increasing current flux through alpha 3-containing GlyRs may prove effective in providing analgesia.

Molecular determinants of ginkgolide binding in the glycine receptor pore

Ginkgolides are potent blockers of the glycine receptor Cl- channel (GlyR) pore. We sought to identify their binding sites by comparing the effects of ginkgolides A, B and C and bilobalide on alpha 1, alpha 2, alpha 1 beta and alpha 2 beta GlyRs. Bilobalide sensitivity was drastically reduced by incorporation of the beta subunit. In contrast, the sensitivities to ginkgolides B and C were enhanced by beta subunit expression. However, ginkgolide A sensitivity was increased in the alpha 2 beta GlyR relative to the alpha 2 GlyR but not in the alpha 1 beta GlyR relative to the alpha 1 GlyR. We hypothesised that the subunit-specific differences were mediated by residue differences at the second transmembrane domain 2' and 6' pore-lining positions. The increased ginkgolide A sensitivity of the alpha 2 beta GlyR was transferred to the alpha 1 beta GlyR by the G2'A (alpha 1 to alpha 2 subunit) substitution. In addition, the alpha 1 subunit T6'F mutation abolished inhibition by all ginkgolides. As the ginkgolides share closely related structures, their molecular interactions with pore-lining residues were amenable to mutant cycle analysis. This identified an interaction between the variable R2 position of the ginkgolides and the 2' residues of both alpha 1 and beta subunits. These findings provide strong evidence for ginkgolides binding at the 2' pore-lining position.