The Role of Growth Trajectories in Classifying Fetal Growth Restriction

OBJECTIVE: To examine the validity of a growth trajectory method to discriminate between pathologically and constitutionally undergrown fetuses using repeated measures of estimated fetal weight.

METHODS: In a prospective, observational, multicenter study in Ireland, 1,116 women with a growth-restricted fetus diagnosed participated with the objective of evaluating ultrasound findings as predictors of pediatric morbidity and mortality. Fetal growth trajectories were based on estimated fetal weight.

RESULTS: Between 22 weeks of gestation and term, two fetal growth trajectories were identified: normal (96.7%) and pathologic (3.3%). Compared with the normal trajectory, the pathologic trajectory was associated with an increased risk for preeclampsia (odds ratio [OR] 8.1, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.6–23.4), increased umbilical artery resistance at 30 weeks of gestation (OR 12.6, 95% CI 4.6–34.1) or 34 weeks of gestation (OR 28.0, 95% CI 8.9–87.7), reduced middle cerebral artery resistance at 30 weeks of gestation (OR 0.33, 95% CI 0.12–0.96) or 34 weeks of gestation (OR 0.14, 95% CI 0.03–0.74), lower gestational age at delivery (mean 32.02 weeks of gestation compared with 38.02 weeks of gestation; P<.001), and higher perinatal complications (OR 21.5, 95% CI 10.5–44.2). In addition, 89.2% of newborns with pathologic fetal growth were admitted to neonatal intensive care units compared with 25.9% of those with normal growth.

CONCLUSIONS: Fetal growth trajectory analysis reliably differentiated fetuses with a pathologic growth pattern among a group of women with growth-restricted fetuses. With further development, this approach could provide clarity to how we define, identify, and ultimately manage pathologic fetal growth.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: II

La néoglucogenèse rénale : un nouvel aspect dans la restriction de croissance intra-utérine chez le rat

Bien que l’environnement intra-utérin défavorable soit associé à des conditions pathologiques à l’âge adulte, les mécanismes mis en place in utero ne sont pas encore élucidés. Nous avons établi un modèle de restriction de croissance intra-utérine (RCIU) en donnant une diète faible en sodium à la rate pendant la dernière semaine de gestation. Ce modèle se caractérise par une diminution de perfusion placentaire et une redistribution du flot sanguin, favorisant l’irrigation des organes nobles (cœur et cerveau) au détriment du rein fœtal. De plus, l’expression rénale du facteur de croissance endothéliale vasculaire (VEGF) est diminuée chez le fœtus. L’hypothèse de travail est que la néoglucogenèse hépatique et rénale augmente chez les fœtus RCIU afin de compenser la diminution de perfusion placentaire, et que l’expression rénale des récepteurs de VEGF (Flt-1 et Flk-1) est altérée à la suite de la redistribution du flot sanguin. Nos objectifs étaient de comparer l’expression protéique des enzymes de la néoglucogenèse et des récepteurs de VEGF entre les fœtus témoins et RCIU. L’aldolase B, la fructose-1,6-biphosphatase et la glucose-6-phosphatase augmentent dans les reins de fœtus RCIU par rapport aux témoins alors qu’aucun changement n’est observé dans le foie. De plus, l’expression de ces enzymes est différente selon le sexe du fœtus. Une diminution de Flt-1 est notée dans les reins de fœtus RCIU. Nos résultats démontrent que des adaptations surviennent chez le fœtus à la suite d’une insulte intra-utérine favorisant sa survie mais ayant des conséquences telles que la dysfonction rénale observée chez les adultes de ce modèle animal. À long terme, ces travaux pourront permettre d’entrevoir des avenues pour mieux identifier les approches de prévention lors de naissance à la suite d’une RCIU.

Caractérisation de la voie de signalisation du récepteur des minéralocorticoïdes dans le rein foetal suite à une restriction de croissance intrautérine

La restriction de croissance intrautérine (RCIU) est associée à l’apparition de maladies à l’âge adulte et le phénotype de la condition pathologique peut être différent selon le sexe. Notre laboratoire a développé un modèle de RCIU chez le rat en administrant une diète faible en sodium lors du dernier tiers de la gestation entraînant une réduction de l’expansion volémique maternelle et de la perfusion utéroplacentaire. L'activité rénine et la concentration d'aldostérone plasmatique sont augmentées chez la mère et les foetus RCIU. Antérieurement, notre laboratoire a démontré une augmentation de l’expression génique et protéique rénale de la Na+-K+-ATPase-α1 uniquement chez les foetus femelles RCIU. Ainsi, nous émettons l’hypothèse que la diminution du volume circulant chez la rate gestante entraîne une augmentation et une expression différentielle, selon le sexe, des éléments de la cascade de signalisation du récepteur des minéralocorticoïdes (MR) dans les reins de foetus RCIU. L’expression des gènes est réalisée par qRT-PCR et celle des protéines par immunobuvardage de type Western. Bien que les résultats démontrent que la transcription génique de SGK1, α-ENaC et GILZ soit augmentée dans les reins de foetus RCIU, l’expression protéique de SGK1, pSGK1(Thr 256) et α-ENaC est similaire à celle des témoins. La protéine GILZ est indétectable. Pour CNKSR3, aucune différence de l’ARNm ou de la protéine n’a été observée entre les deux groupes. Par contre, même si l’expression génique du MR n’est pas différente, l’expression protéique est diminuée chez les RCIU. Aucun effet du sexe n’a été observé. En conclusion, l’augmentation d'aldostérone plasmatique chez les foetus ayant subi une RCIU stimule la transcription des gènes associés à la voie de réabsorption sodique, mais la quantité protéique demeure inchangée. Ceci suggère qu’il peut avoir des mécanismes de régulation post-transcriptionnelle ou une dégradation accélérée des protéines. Malgré la pertinence du sexe dans le développement de maladies, le sexe n’influence pas l’expression des composantes de la voie de rétention sodique chez le foetus. Il serait important de suivre cette voie en fonction de l’âge et de corréler les expressions génique et protéique avec l’apparition de maladies.

Conséquences d’une restriction de croissance intra-utérine sur la réactivité aortique chez le rat en fonction de l’âge et du sexe biologique

Antécédents. Le tonus vasculaire est régulé par plusieurs mécanismes et réagit à plusieurs composés endogènes et exogènes, dont les hormones circulantes et les substances vasoactives libérées par l’endothélium. Plusieurs études ont démontré que les femmes pré-ménopausées seraient moins à risque d’avoir des maladies cardiovasculaires que les hommes et que cette protection serait due aux hormones stéroïdiennes oestrogéniques. De plus, des études démontrent que les artères gagnent en rigidité avec l’âge différemment selon le sexe et que la restriction de croissance intra-utérine (RCIU) prédispose au développement de maladies cardiovasculaires à l’âge adulte différemment chez les hommes et chez les femmes. On a cherché à savoir si la réactivité vasculaire aortique dépend du sexe biologique, de l’âge et de l’environnement intra-utérin et si la rigidité aortique est différente entre les mâles et les femelles. Méthode. Des anneaux d’aorte thoracique de rats mâles ou femelles, témoins ou RCIU, de 5, 12 et 20 semaines avec endothélium ont été montés dans des bains à organe isolé. La contraction à des doses croissantes de phényléphrine (Phe) avec ou sans L-Name ainsi que la relaxation à des doses croissantes de carbachol (Cbc) ou de nitroprussiate de sodium (SNP) ont été enregistrées afin d’évaluer la réactivité vasculaire de l’aorte et de comparer les différents groupes. Des anneaux d’aorte thoracique de rats mâles et femelles âgés entre 13 et 17 semaines ont été utilisées pour évaluer la rigidité artérielle. Résultats. Chez les rats mâles seulement, la contraction maximale à la Phe en absence et en présence du L-Name est augmentée à 20 semaines chez les témoins et à 12 et 20 semaines chez les RCIU. Chez les femelles, la contraction maximale n’est pas affectée par l’âge et la RCIU. Par contre, un effet du L-Name est observé à l’âge adulte, autant chez les femelles témoins que RCIU. L’effet du L-Name est plus prononcé chez les femelles que chez les mâles. Dans tous les groupes RCIU, la relaxation maximale au Cbc est réduite. Par contre, aucune différence entre les différents groupes n’est observée avec le SNP et aucune différence de rigidité n’est observée entre les mâles et les femelles. Conclusion. Les résultats au L-Name suggèrent un rôle plus important du NO chez les femelles et les résultats à la Phe suggèrent que les mâles sont plus réactifs aux stimulis vasoconstricteurs avec l’âge et que ceci est encore plus prononcé lorsque l’environnement intra-utérin a été défavorable. La différence de contraction maximale entre les mâles et les femelles n’est pas due à la rigidité artérielle.

Conséquences d’une restriction de croissance intra-utérine et du sexe biologique sur le métabolisme des acides gras dans les cardiomyocytes de rats foetaux

Il est désormais accepté qu'un environnement foetal défavorable prédispose à des maladies chroniques qui surviennent à l'âge adulte. Il a été démontré dans notre laboratoire qu'une diminution de perfusion placentaire induit une redistribution du débit sanguin vers le coeur chez le foetus ainsi qu’une restriction de croissance intrautérine. De plus, un remodelage et une diminution de la contractilité des cardiomyocytes ont été observés chez les femelles devenues adultes. En période périnatale, l’utilisation des acides gras comme substrat énergétique devient plus importante que celle du glucose au niveau des cardiomyocytes. Considérant qu'un mécanisme s'est mis en place in utero, nous émettons l’hypothèse que le transfert de la voie de l’utilisation du glucose vers l’utilisation des acides gras se fait plus tôt chez les foetus en restriction de croissance. L’objectif de cette étude est de mesurer, dans les coeurs foetaux, les constituants du métabolisme des acides gras, soit le transporteur principal des acides gras, la carnitine palmitoyltransférase‒1‒alpha, ainsi que ses protéines associées soit l’acyl‒CoenzymeA synthétase‒1 et le canal anionique voltage‒dépendant de type 1. Nous mesurerons l’activité du cytochrome c oxydase et le nombre de mitochondries. L’influence du sexe et la condition foetale (restriction de croissance intrautérine vs contrôle) seront comparés. Nous avons observé que l’expression protéique de la carnitine palmitoytransférase‒1α et de l’acyl‒CoenzymeA synthétase‒1 est significativement augmentée, mais pas celle du canal anionique voltage‒dépendant de type 1, dans les coeurs de foetus en restriction de croissance intrautérine femelles. Le nombre et l’activité des mitochondries est semblable dans tous les groupes. Ces résultats suggèrent que la condition foetale et le sexe altèrent la quantité du transporteur des acides gras, la carnitine palmitoytransférase‒1α, au niveau traductionnel sans toutefois affecter l’activité du cytochrome c oxydase et le nombre de mitochondries. À long terme, nos études permettront de mieux comprendre les conséquences et causes de la RCIU afin d’en permettre la prévention.

Intrauterine growth restricted rats exercised at pregnancy: maternal-fetal repercussions

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Factors Associated with Height Catch-Up and Catch-Down Growth Among Schoolchildren

In developed countries, children with intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) or born preterm (PT) tend to achieve catch-up growth. There is little information about height catch-up in developing countries and about height catch-down in both developed and developing countries. We studied the effect of IUGR and PT birth on height catch-up and catch-down growth of children from two cohorts of liveborn singletons. Data from 1,463 children was collected at birth and at school age in Ribeirao Preto (RP), a more developed city, and in Sao Luis (SL), a less developed city. A change in z-score between schoolchild height z-score and birth length z-score >= 0.67 was considered catch-up; a change in z-score <=-0.67 indicated catch-down growth. The explanatory variables were: appropriate weight for gestational age/PT birth in four categories: term children without IUGR (normal), IUGR only (term with IUGR), PT only ( preterm without IUGR) and preterm with IUGR; infant's sex; maternal parity, age, schooling and marital status; occupation of family head; family income and neonatal ponderal index (PI). The risk ratio for catch-up and catch-down was estimated by multinomial logistic regression for each city. In RP, preterms without IUGR (RR = 4.13) and thin children (PI<10th percentile, RR = 14.39) had a higher risk of catch-down; catch-up was higher among terms with IUGR (RR = 5.53), preterms with IUGR (RR = 5.36) and children born to primiparous mothers (RR = 1.83). In SL, catch-down was higher among preterms without IUGR (RR = 5.19), girls (RR = 1.52) and children from low-income families ( RR = 2.74); the lowest risk of catch-down (RR = 0.27) and the highest risk of catch-up (RR = 3.77) were observed among terms with IUGR. In both cities, terms with IUGR presented height catch-up growth whereas preterms with IUGR only had height catch-up growth in the more affluent setting. Preterms without IUGR presented height catch-down growth, suggesting that a better socioeconomic situation facilitates height catch-up and prevents height catch-down growth.

An examination of the relationship between maternal and neighborhood-level characteristics and intrauterine growth retardation in Harris County, Texas, 1999--2001

The persistence of low birth weight and intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR) in the United States has puzzled researchers for decades. Much of the work that has been conducted on adverse birth outcomes has focused on low birth weight in general and not on IUGR. Studies that have examined IUGR specifically thus far have focused primarily on individual-level maternal risk factors. These risk factors have only been able to explain a small portion of the variance in IUGR. Therefore, recent work has begun to focus on community-level risk factors in addition to the individual-level maternal characteristics. This study uses Social Ecology to examine the relationship of individual and community-level risk factors and IUGR. Logistic regression was used to establish an individual-level model based on 155, 856 births recorded in Harris County, TX during 1999-2001. IUGR was characterized using a fetal growth ratio method with race/ethnic and sex specific mean birth weights calculated from national vital records. The spatial distributions of 114,460 birth records spatially located within the City of Houston were examined using choropleth, probability and density maps. Census tracts with higher than expected rates of IUGR and high levels of neighborhood disadvantage were highlighted. Neighborhood disadvantage was constructed using socioeconomic variables from the 2000 U.S. Census. Factor analysis was used to create a unified single measure. Lastly, a random coefficients model was used to examine the relationship between varying levels of community disadvantage, given the set of individual-level risk factors for 152,997 birth records spatially located within Harris County, TX. Neighborhood disadvantage was measured using three different indices adapted from previous work. The findings show that pregnancy-induced hypertension, previous preterm infant, tobacco use and insufficient weight gain have the highest association with IUGR. Neighborhood disadvantage only slightly further increases the risk of IUGR (OR 1.12 to 1.23). Although community level disadvantage only helped to explain a small proportion of the variance of IUGR, it did have a significant impact. This finding suggests that community level risk factors should be included in future work with IUGR and that more work needs to be conducted. ^

Feto-placental development in the rabbit is altered by maternal food restriction from early pregnancy

Feto-placental development in the rabbit is altered by maternal food restriction from early pregnancy Maternal under-nutrition can induce Intrauterine Growth Restriction by placental insufficiency. To determine the consequences in the rabbit feto-placental unit, 32 pregnant rabbits were allocated in three feeding groups: ad libitum diet (Group C; n=9); restricted to 50% of their ad libitum intake during the pre-implantational period (Day 0 to Day 7) (Group PR; n=11) or restricted from Day 0 to Day 28 (Group TR; n=12).

Pontosubicular apoptosis ("necrosis") in human neonates with intrauterine growth retardation and placental infarction

In a previous study of 37 autopsied stillbirths with non-dysmorphic intrauterine growth retardation ( IUGR), 26 cases were associated with placental infarction, a morphologic marker of uteroplacental insufficiency. Nine of the 26 cases with both IUGR and placental infarction, where archival tissue was available, had grey matter ischaemic lesions that were subsequently identified as pontosubicular necrosis. This lesion is now regarded as a localized form of apoptosis. A further eight third trimester stillbirth cases with both IUGR and placental infarction were ascertained prospectively. Sixteen of these 17 cases showed pontosubicular apoptosis, identified morphologically and verified using activated caspase-3 and TUNEL. Five of the 17 cases showed apoptosis in the frontal or temporal cortex as well. In this current study, pontosubicular apoptosis was strongly associated with IUGR and placental infarction in third trimester stillborns, suggesting that uteroplacental insufficiency leading to chronic fetal hypoxaemia may cause cerebral apoptosis.

Fetal growth restriction results in remodeled and less efficient hearts in children

Background— Fetal growth restriction (FGR) affects 5% to 10% of newborns and is associated with increased cardiovascular mortality in adulthood. The most commonly accepted hypothesis is that fetal metabolic programming leads secondarily to diseases associated with cardiovascular disease, such as obesity, diabetes mellitus, and hypertension. Our main objective was to evaluate the alternative hypothesis that FGR induces primary cardiac changes that persist into childhood. Methods and Results— Within a cohort of fetuses with growth restriction identified in fetal life and followed up into childhood, we randomly selected 80 subjects with FGR and compared them with 120 normally grown fetuses, matched for gender, birth date, and gestational age at birth. Cardiovascular assessment was performed in childhood (mean age of 5 years). Compared with control subjects, children with FGR had a different cardiac shape, with increased transversal diameters and more globular cardiac ventricles. Although left ejection fraction was similar among the study groups, stroke volume was reduced significantly, which was compensated for by an increased heart rate to maintain output in severe FGR. This was associated with subclinical longitudinal systolic dysfunction (decreased myocardial peak velocities) and diastolic changes (increased E/E' ratio and E deceleration time). Children with FGR also had higher blood pressure and increased intima-media thickness. For all parameters evaluated, there was a linear increase with the severity of growth restriction. Conclusions— These findings suggest that FGR induces primary cardiac and vascular changes that could explain the increased predisposition to cardiovascular disease in adult life. If these results are confirmed, the impact of strategies with beneficial effects on cardiac remodeling should be explored in children with FGR.

Can hydrogen sulfide prevent preeclampsia and fetal growth restriction?

The exact aetiology of preeclampsia is unknown, but there is a good association with an imbalance in angiogenic growth factors and abnormal placentation [1]. Hydrogen sulphide (H2S), a gaseous messenger produced mainly by cystathionine γ-lyase (CSE), is pro-angiogenic vasodilator [2] and [3]. We hypothesized that a reduction in CSE activity may alter the angiogenic balance in pregnancy and induce abnormal placentation and maternal hypertension. Plasma levels of H2S were significantly decreased in preeclamptic women (p < 0.01), which was associated with reduced CSE message and protein expression in human placenta as determined by real-time PCR and immunohistochemistry. Inhibition of CSE activity by DL-propargylglycine (PAG) in first trimester (8–12 weeks gestation) human placental explants had reduced placenta growth factor (PlGF) production as assessed by ELISA and inhibited trophoblast invasion in vitro. Endothelial CSE knockdown by siRNA transfection increased the endogenous release of soluble fms-Like tyrosine kinase-1 (sFlt-1) and soluble endoglin, (sEng) from human umbilical vein endothelial cells while adenoviral-mediated CSE overexpression inhibited their release. Administration of PAG to pregnant mice induced hypertension, liver damage, and promoted abnormal labyrinth vascularisation in the placenta and decreased fetal growth. Finally, a slow releasing, H2S-generating compound, GYY4137, inhibited circulating sFlt-1 and sEng levels and restored fetal growth that was compromised by PAG-treatment demonstrating that the effect of CSE inhibitor was due to inhibition of H2S production. These results imply that endogenous H2S is required for healthy placental vasculature and a decrease in of CSE/H2S activity may contribute to the pathogenesis of preeclampsia. References [1] S. Ahmad, A. Ahmed, Elevated placental soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1 inhibits angiogenesis in preeclampsia, Circ Res., 95 (2004), pp. 884–891. [2] G. Yang, et al., H2S as a physiologic vasorelaxant: hypertension in mice with deletion of cystathionine gamma-lyase, Science, 322 (2008), pp. 587–590. [3] A. Papapetropoulos, et al., Hydrogen sulfide is an endogenous stimulator of angiogenesis, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 106 (2009), pp. 21972–21977.

Dysregulation of placental cystathionine-β-synthase promotes fetal growth restriction

Fetal growth restriction (FGR) is characterized by the birth weight and body mass below the tenth percentile for gestational age. FGR is a major cause of perinatal morbidity and mortality and babies born with FGR are prone to develop cardiovascular diseases later in life. The underlying pathology of FGR is inadequate placental transfer of nutrients from mother to fetus, which can be caused by placental insufficiency. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), a gaseous messenger is produced endogenously by cystathionine-lyase (Cth), cystathionine-β-synthase (CBS) and 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase (3-MST), which are present in human placenta. Recently, we demonstrated that the dysregulation of H2S/Cth pathway is associated with preeclampsia and blockade of CSE activity induces preeclampsia-like condition in pregnant mice. We hypothesized that defect in H2S pathways promote FGR and H2S donor restores fetal growth in mice where CBS or CSE activity has been compromised. Western blotting and qPCR revealed that placental CBS expressions were significantly reduced in women with FGR. ELISA analysis showed reduced placental growth factor production (PlGF) from first trimester (8–12 weeks gestation) human placental explants following inhibition of CBS activity by aminooxyacetic acid (AOA). Administration of AOA to pregnant mice had no effects on blood pressure, but caused fetal growth restriction. This was associated with reduced PlGF production. Histological analysis revealed a reduction in the placental junction zone, within which trophoblast giant cells and glycogen cells were less prominent in CBS inhibitor treated mice. These results imply that placental CBS is required for placental development and that dysregulation of CBS activity may contribute to the pathogenesis of FGR but not preeclampsia.