Fe as Hydrogen/Halogen Bond Acceptor in Square Pyramidal Fe(CO)(5)

Hydrogen bonded complexes formed between the square pyramidal Fe(CO)(5) with HX (X = F, Cl, Br), showing X-H center dot center dot center dot Fe interactions, have been investigated theoretically using density functional theory (DFT) including dispersion correction. Geometry, interaction energy, and large red shift of about 400 cm(-1) in the FIX stretching frequency confirm X-H center dot center dot center dot Fe hydrogen bond formation. In the (CO)(5)Fe center dot center dot center dot HBr complex, following the significant red shift, the HBr stretching mode is coupled with the carbonyl stretching modes. This clearly affects the correlation between frequency shift and binding energy, which is a hallmark of hydrogen bonds. Atoms in Molecule (AIM) theoretical analyses show the presence of a bond critical point between the iron and the hydrogen of FIX and significant mutual penetration. These X-H center dot center dot center dot Fe hydrogen bonds follow most but not all of the eight criteria proposed by Koch and Popelier (J. Phys. Chem. 1995, 99, 9747) based on their investigations on C-H center dot center dot center dot O hydrogen bonds. Natural bond orbital (NBO) analysis indicates charge transfer from the organometallic system to the hydrogen bond donor. However, there is no correlation between the extent of charge transfer and interaction,energy, contrary to what is proposed in the recent IUPAC recommendation (Pure Appl.. Chem. 2011, 83, 1637). The ``hydrogen bond radius'' for iron has been determined to be 1.60 +/- 0.02 angstrom, and not surprisingly it is between the covalent (127 angstrom) and van der Waals (2.0) radii of Fe. DFT and AIM theoretical studies reveal that Fe in square pyramidal Fe(CO)(5) can also form halogen bond with CIF and ClH as ``halogen bond donor''. Both these complexes show mutual penetration as well, though the Fe center dot center dot center dot Cl distance is closer to the sum of van der Waals radii of Fe and Cl in (CO)5Fe center dot center dot center dot ClH, and it is about 1 angstrom less in (CO)(5)Fe center dot center dot center dot ClF.

Halogen Bonds in Crystal Engineering: Like Hydrogen Bonds yet Different

CONSPECTUS: The halogen bond is an attractive interaction in which an electrophilic halogen atom approaches a negatively polarized species. Short halogen atom contacts in crystals have been known for around 50 years. Such contacts are found in two varieties: type I, which is symmetrical, and type II, which is bent. Both are influenced by geometric and chemical considerations. Our research group has been using halogen atom interactions as design elements in crystal engineering, for nearly 30 years. These interactions include halogen center dot center dot center dot halogen interactions (X center dot center dot center dot X) and halogen center dot center dot center dot heteroatom interactions (X center dot center dot center dot B). Many X center dot center dot center dot X and almost all X center dot center dot center dot B contacts can be classified as halogen bonds. In this Account, we illustrate examples of crystal engineering where one can build up from previous knowledge with a focus that is provided by the modern definition of the halogen bond. We also comment on the similarities and differences between halogen bonds and hydrogen bonds. These interactions are similar because the protagonist atoms halogen and hydrogen are both electrophilic in nature. The interactions are distinctive because the size of a halogen atom is of consequence when compared with the atomic sizes of, for example, C, N, and O, unlike that of a hydrogen atom. Conclusions may be drawn pertaining to the nature of X center dot center dot center dot X interactions from the Cambridge Structural Database (CSD). There is a clear geometric and chemical distinction between type I and type II, with only type II being halogen bonds. Cl/Br isostructurality is explained based on a geometric model. In parallel, experimental studies on 3,4-dichlorophenol and its congeners shed light on the nature of halogen center dot center dot center dot halogen interactions and reveal the chemical difference between Cl and Br. Variable temperature studies also show differences between type I and type II contacts. In terms of crystal design, halogen bonds offer a unique opportunity in the strength, atom size and interaction gradation; this may be used in the design of ternary cocrystals. Structural modularity in which an entire crystal structure is defined as a combination of modules is rationalized on the basis of the intermediate strength of a halogen bond. The specific directionality of the halogen bond makes it a good tool to achieve orthogonality in molecular crystals. Mechanical properties can be tuned systematically by varying these orthogonally oriented halogen center dot center dot center dot halogen interactions. In a further development, halogen bonds are shown to play a systematic role in organization of LSAMs (long range synthon aufbau module), which are bigger structural units containing multiple synthons. With a formal definition in place, this may be the right time to look at differences between halogen bonds and hydrogen bonds and exploit them in more subtle ways in crystal engineering.

Obtaining Synthon Modularity in Ternary Cocrystals with Hydrogen Bonds and Halogen Bonds

Design of ternary cocrystals based on synthon modularity is described. The strategy is based on the idea of extending synthon modularity in binary cocrystals of 4-hydroxybenzamide:dicarboxylic acids and 4-bromobenzamide:dicarboxylic acids. If a system contains an amide group along with other functional groups, one of which is a carboxylic acid group, the amide associates preferentially with the carboxylic acid group to form an acidamide heterosynthon. If the amide and the acid groups are in different molecules, a higher multicomponent molecular crystal is obtained. This is a stable pattern that can be used to increase the number of components from two to three in a multicomponent system. Accordingly, noncovalent interactions are controlled in the design of ternary cocrystals in a more predictable manner. If a single component crystal with the amideamide dimer is considered, modularity is retained even after formation of a binary cocrystal with acidamide dimers. Similarly, when third component halogen atom containing molecules are introduced into these binary cocrystals, modularity is still retained. Here, we use acidamide and Br/I center dot center dot center dot O2N supramolecular synthons to obtain modularity in nine ternary cocrystals. The acidamide heterosynthon is robust to all the nine cocrystals. Heterosynthons may assist ternary cocrystal formation when there is a high solubility difference between the coformers. For a successful crystal engineering strategy for ternary cocrystals, one must consider the synthon itself and factors like shape and size of the component molecules, as well as the solubilities of the compounds.

Fluorine prefers hydrogen bonds over halogen bonds! Insights from crystal structures of some halofluorobenzenes

Crystal structures of a series of isomers of chlorofluorobenzene, bromofluorobenzene and iodofluorobenzene, all of which are liquids under ambient conditions, are determined by a technique of in situ cryocrystallography. These simple dihalo substituted benzenes provide clear insights into subtle interplay of packing interactions preferred by fluorine and heavier halogens for example, C-H center dot center dot center dot X hydrogen bonds vs. X center dot center dot center dot X halogen bonds (X=F, Cl, Br, I). The interaction patterns noted here are purely characteristic of halogens, having not been influenced by other stronger interactions. Variability of principal supramolecular synthons among the isomers highlights the importance of molecular shape and relative position of interacting atoms while preserving the basic intermolecular bonds. Mutually exclusive occurrence of homo (I center dot center dot center dot I) and hetero (I center dot center dot center dot F) halogen bonds in polymorphs of 4-iodofluorobenzene questions the robustness and reliability of these interactions.

Hydrogen bonding, halogen bonding and lithium bonding: an atoms in molecules and natural bond orbital perspective towards conservation of total bond order, inter- and intra-molecular bonding

One hundred complexes have been investigated exhibiting D-X center dot center dot center dot A interactions, where X = H, Cl or Li and DX is the `X bond' donor and A is the acceptor. The optimized structures of all these complexes have been used to propose a generalized `Legon-Millen rule' for the angular geometry in all these interactions. A detailed Atoms in Molecules (AIM) theoretical analysis confirms an important conclusion, known in the literature: there is a strong correlation between the electron density at the X center dot center dot center dot A bond critical point (BCP) and the interaction energy for all these interactions. In addition, we show that extrapolation of the fitted line leads to the ionic bond for Li-bonding (electrostatic) while for hydrogen and chlorine bonding, it leads to the covalent bond. Further, we observe a strong correlation between the change in electron density at the D-X BCP and that at the X center dot center dot center dot A BCP, suggesting conservation of the bond order. The correlation found between penetration and electron density at BCP can be very useful for crystal structure analysis, which relies on arbitrary van der Waals radii for estimating penetration. Various criteria proposed for shared-and closed-shell interactions based on electron density topology have been tested for H/Cl/Li bonded complexes. Finally, using the natural bond orbital (NBO) analysis it is shown that the D-X bond weakens upon X bond formation, whether it is ionic (DLi) or covalent (DH/DCl) and the respective indices such as ionicity or covalent bond order decrease. Clearly, one can think of conservation of bond order that includes ionic and covalent contributions to both D-X and X center dot center dot center dot A bonds, for not only X = H/Cl/Li investigated here but also any atom involved in intermolecular bonding.

Graded IR Filters: Distinguishing Between Single and Multipoint NO2 center dot center dot center dot I Halogen Bonded Supramolecular Synthons (P, Q, and R Synthons)

The NO2 center dot center dot center dot I supramolecular synthon is a halogen bonded recognition pattern that is present in the crystal structures of many compounds that contain these functional groups. These synthons have been previously distinguished as P, Q, and R types using topological and geometrical criteria. A five step IR spectroscopic sequence is proposed here to distinguish between these synthon types in solid samples. Sets of known compounds that contain the P, Q, and R synthons are first taken to develop IR spectroscopic identifiers for them. The identifiers are then used to create graded IR filters that sieve the synthons. These filters contain signatures of the individual NO2 center dot center dot center dot I synthons and may be applied to distinguish between P, Q, and R synthon varieties. They are also useful to identify synthons that are of a borderline character, synthons in disordered structures wherein the crystal structure in itself is not sufficient to distinguish synthon types, and in the identification of the NO2 center dot center dot center dot I synthons in compounds with unknown crystal structures. This study establishes clear differences for the three different geometries P, Q, and Rand in the chemical differences in the intermolecular interactions contained in the synthons. Our IR method can be conveniently employed when single crystals are not readily available also in high throughput analysis. It is possible that such identification may also be adopted as an input for crystal structure prediction analysis of compounds with unknown crystal structures.

Halogen Bonding Controls the Regioselectivity of the Deiodination of Thyroid Hormones and their Sulfate Analogues

The type1 iodothyronine deiodinase (1D-1) in liver and kidney converts the L-thyroxine (T4), a prohormone, by outer-ring (5) deiodination to biologically active 3,3,5-triiodothyronine (T3) or by inner-ring (5) deiodination to inactive 3,3,5-triiodothronine (rT3). Sulfate conjugation is an important step in the irreversible inactivation of thyroid hormones. While sulfate conjugation of the phenolic hydroxyl group stimulates the 5-deiodination of T4 and T3, it blocks the 5-deiodination of T4. We show that thyroxine sulfate (T4S) undergoes faster deiodination as compared to the parent thyroid hormone T4 by synthetic selenium compounds. It is also shown that ID-3 mimics, which are remarkably selective to the inner-ring deiodination of T4 and T3, changes the selectivity completely when T4S is used as a substrate. From the theoretical investigations, it is observed that the strength of halogen bonding increases upon sulfate conjugation, which leads to a change in the regioselectivity of ID-3 mimics towards the deiodination of T4S. It has been shown that these mimics perform both the 5- and 5-ring deiodinations by an identical mechanism.

First hyperpolarizability of Ru-half-sandwich complexes: The effect of halogen atom substitution on the ancillary ligand

The first hyperpolarizability (beta) of a series of half-sandwich Ru complexes with a mercaptobenzothiazole ligand bearing a halogen atom substitution in the para-position has been investigated by hyper-Rayleigh scattering and quantum chemical calculations. The heterocyclic ligand with a bromine atom in the para position makes it a very good donor and charge flows to the Ru center enhancing the beta value of the complex by a factor of 2 compared to the complex with the ligand without the halogen substitution. The resonance (+R) and the inductive (-I) effects exerted by the halogen atom in the para position push electrons in opposing directions in the complex. For the Br and Cl atoms the resonance effect dominates which enables the ligand to donate electrons to the metal center thereby increasing the hyperpolarizability whereas for the fluorine atom, the inductive effect is dominant which reduces the charge flow to the metal and the hyperpolarizability drops even below that of the unsubstituted ligand. This unprecedented halogen atom effect on beta of metal complexes is reported. (C) 2015 Elsevier By. All rights reserved.

Halogen bonds in some dihalogenated phenols: applications to crystal engineering

3,4-Dichlorophenol (1) crystallizes in the tetragonal space group I4(1)/a with a short axis of 3.7926 (9) angstrom. The structure is unique in that both type I and type II Cl.....Cl interactions are present, these contact types being distinguished by the angle ranges of the respective C-Cl....Cl angles. The present study shows that these two types of contacts are utterly different. The crystal structures of 4-bromo-3-chlorophenol (2) and 3-bromo-4-chlorophenol (3) have been determined. The crystal structure of (2) is isomorphous to that of (1) with the Br atom in the 4-position participating in a type II interaction. However, the monoclinic P2(1)/c packing of compound (3) is different; while the structure still has O-H....O hydrogen bonds, the tetramer O-H.....O synthon seen in (1) and (2) is not seen. Rather than a type I Br....Br interaction which would have been mandated if (3) were isomorphous to (1) and (2), Br forms a Br....O contact wherein its electrophilic character is clearly evident. Crystal structures of the related compounds 4-chloro-3-iodophenol (4) and 3,5-dibromophenol (5) were also determined. A computational survey of the structural landscape was undertaken for (1), (2) and (3), using a crystal structure prediction protocol in space groups P2(1)/c and I4(1)/a with the COMPASS26 force field. While both tetragonal and monoclinic structures are energetically reasonable for all compounds, the fact that (3) takes the latter structure indicates that Br prefers type II over type I contacts. In order to differentiate further between type I and type II halogen contacts, which being chemically distinct are expected to have different distance fall-off properties, a variable-temperature crystallography study was performed on compounds (1), (2) and (4). Length variations with temperature are greater for type II contacts compared with type I. The type II Br....Br interaction in (2) is stronger than the corresponding type II Cl....Cl interaction in (1), leading to elastic bending of the former upon application of mechanical stress, which contrasts with the plastic deformation of (1). The observation of elastic deformation in (2) is noteworthy; in that it finds an explanation based on the strengths of the respective halogen bonds, it could also be taken as a good starting model for future property design. Cl/Br isostructurality is studied with the Cambridge Structural Database and it is indicated that this isostructurality is based on shape and size similarity of Cl and Br, rather than arising from any chemical resemblance.

On the ultrafast charge migration and subsequent charge directed reactivity in Cl center dot center dot center dot N halogen-bonded clusters following vertical ionization

In this article, we have presented ultrafast charge transfer dynamics through halogen bonds following vertical ionization of representative halogen bonded clusters. Subsequent hole directed reactivity of the radical cations of halogen bonded clusters is also discussed. Furthermore, we have examined effect of the halogen bond strength on the electron-electron correlation-and relaxation-driven charge migration in halogen bonded complexes. For this study, we have selected A-Cl (A represents F, OH, CN, NH2, CF3, and COOH substituents) molecules paired with NH3 (referred as ACl:NH3 complex): these complexes exhibit halogen bonds. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on purely electron correlation-and relaxation-driven ultrafast (attosecond) charge migration dynamics through halogen bonds. Both density functional theory and complete active space self-consistent field theory with 6-31+G(d, p) basis set are employed for this work. Upon vertical ionization of NCCl center dot center dot center dot NH3 complex, the hole is predicted to migrate from the NH3-end to the ClCN-end of the NCCl center dot center dot center dot NH3 complex in approximately 0.5 fs on the D-0 cationic surface. This hole migration leads to structural rearrangement of the halogen bonded complex, yielding hydrogen bonding interaction stronger than the halogen bonding interaction on the same cationic surface. Other halogen bonded complexes, such as H2NCl:NH3, F3CCl:NH3, and HOOCCl:NH3, exhibit similar charge migration following vertical ionization. On the contrary, FCl:NH3 and HOCl:NH3 complexes do not exhibit any charge migration following vertical ionization to the D-0 cation state, pointing to interesting halogen bond strength-dependent charge migration. (C) 2015 AIP Publishing LLC.

Halogen Bonding and Chalcogen Bonding in 4,7-Dibromo-5, 6-dinitro-2,1,3-benzothiadiazole

An organic solid, 4,7-dibromo-5,6-dinitro-2,1,3-benzothiadiazole, has been designed to serve as an illustrative example to quantitatively evaluate the relative merits of halogen and chalcogen bonding in terms of charge density features. The compound displays two polymorphic modifications, one crystallizing in a non-centrosymmetric space group (Z' = 1) and the other in a centrosymmetric space group with two molecules in the asymmetric unit (Z' = 2). Topological analysis based on QTAIM clearly brings out the dominance of the chalcogen bond over the halogen bond along with an indication that halogen bonds are more directional compared to chalcogen bonds. The cohesive energies calculated with the absence of both strong and weak hydrogen bonds as well as stacking interaction are indicative of the stabilities associated with the polymorphic forms.

Influence of voltage and frequency dimming on power losses in HF electronic ballasts for compact fluorescent lamps

Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL) incorporating electronic ballasts are widely used in lighting. In many cases the ability to dim the lamp is a requirement Dimming can be achieved by varying the voltage supplied to the inverter or by changing the switching frequency of the inverter. The effect of dimming by both approaches on the power losses in the inverter is studied in this work. The lamp and associated inverter has been modeled in PSPICE, using a behavioral model for the CFL. Predicted losses are in good agreement with experimental data obtained from calorimetry. The model was then used to determine the distribution of losses within the inverter, enabling a comparison of the effects of the two dimming methods to be made. © 2006 IEEE.