Microsatellites provide evidence for Y chromosome diversity among the founders of the New World

Recently, Y chromosome markers have begun to be used to study Native American origins. Available data have been interpreted as indicating that the colonizers of the New World carried a single founder haplotype. However, these early studies have been based on a few, mostly complex polymorphisms of insufficient resolution to determine whether observed diversity stems from admixture or diversity among the colonizers. Because the interpretation of Y chromosomal variation in the New World depends on founding diversity, it is important to develop marker systems with finer resolution. Here we evaluate the hypothesis of a single-founder Y haplotype for Amerinds by using 11 Y-specific markers in five Colombian Amerind populations. Two of these markers (DYS271, DYS287) are reliable indicators of admixture and detected three non-Amerind chromosomes in our sample. Two other markers (DYS199, M19) are single-nucleotide polymorphisms mostly restricted to Native Americans. The relatedness of chromosomes defined by these two markers was evaluated by constructing haplotypes with seven microsatellite loci (DYS388 to 394). The microsatellite backgrounds found on the two haplogroups defined by marker DYS199 demonstrate the existence of at least two Amerind founder haplotypes, one of them (carrying allele DYS199 T) largely restricted to Native Americans. The estimated age and distribution of these haplogroups places them among the founders of the New World.

The church bells of Bedfordshire : their founders, inscriptions, traditions, and peculiar uses, with a brief history of church bells in that county, chiefly from original and contemporaneous records /

Mode of access: Internet.

The church bells of Leicestershire : their inscriptions, traditions, and peculiar uses, with chapters on bells and the Leicester bell founders /

Mode of access: Internet.

Our weakened Constitution : an historical and analytical study of the Constitution of the United States and of the additions to the original text undertaken to place the facts before the American people, and to emphasize the present necessity for a movement in behalf of an unvolated Constitution, state integrity and the rights and immunities established by the founders of this republic /

Mode of access: Internet.

Bell-founders in Lancashire and Cheshire and the adjacent counties, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; a paper, read before the Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire, 6th March, 1890.

Mode of access: Internet.

The church bells of the county and city of Lincoln : their founders, inscriptions, traditions, and peculiar uses, with a brief history of church bells in Loncolnshire, chiefly from original and contemporaneous records /

"210 copies printed."

The church bells of Essex : their founders, inscriptions, traditions, and uses /

Mode of access: Internet.

Revised history of Harlem (City of New York) : its origin and early annals, prefaced by home scenes in the fatherlands, or, notices of its founders before emigration. : Also, sketches of numerous families, and the recovered history of the land-titles ... /

"Revised from the author's notes and enlarged by Henry Pennington Toler. Edited by Sterling Potter."

Towns of New England and old England, Ireland and Scotland : connecting links between cities and towns of New England and those of the same name in England, Ireland and Scotland : containing narratives, descriptions, and many views, some done from old prints : also much matter pertaining to the founders and settlers of New England and to their memorials on both sides of the Atlantic /

"Written to commemorate the tercentenary of the landing of the Pilgrims."

The arithmetic of the gold and silversmith; prepared for the use of jewelers, founders, merchants, etc., especially for those engaged in the conversion and alloying of gold or other metals, the mixing of various substances, etc.,

Mode of access: Internet.

Collections concerning the church or congregation of Protestant Separatists formed at Scrooby in north Nottinghamshire, in the time of King James I : the founders of New-Plymouth, the parent-colony of New-England /

"This volume is in one sense a second edition of a tract which was printed in 1849, entitled 'Collections concerning the early history of the founders of a New Plymouth, the first colonists of New England'"--Preliminary notice.

In memoriam, founders and makers of Michigan : a memorial history of the state's honored men and women /

Includes index.

Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania, in the olden time; being a collection of memoirs, anecdotes, and incidents of the city and its inhabitants, and of the earliest settlements of the inland part of Pennsylvania, from the days of the founders ... Embellished with engravings,

Vol. 2 published by E. Thomas.

Yale university; its history, influence, equipment and characteristics, with biographical sketches and portraits of founders, benefactors, officiers, and alumni.

Mode of access: Internet.

Lives of the founders of the British Museum: with notices of its chief augmentors and other benefactors, 1570-1870.

Mode of access: Internet.