Habitat Split as a Cause of Local Population Declines of Amphibians with Aquatic Larvae

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Use of space by frugivorous bats (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae) in a restored Atlantic forest fragment in Brazil

We studied patterns in the use of space for foraging and roosting by two frugivorous bat species in a five-year-old restored Atlantic forest located in a fragmented landscape in southeastern Brazil. Ten individuals of Carollia perspicillata and eleven individuals of Artibeus lituratus were monitored through radio-telemetry in five sampling sessions. Each session lasted 3-8. days for each individual, with an average of 25.4 ± 10 locations for each C. perspicillata individual and 19 ± 4.4 for each A. lituratus individual. We described an average range of 124.4. ha and an average commuting distance of 1158.8. m for A. lituratus and an average range and commuting distance of 32. ha and 489. m, respectively, for C. perspicillata. We demonstrated a consistent pattern in habitat use and movements for both studied species, where they strictly used forests (restored or not) for day roosting, roosting in the foliage of trees located only in secondary forest remnants and restored areas, while restored areas were their main feeding habitat. We demonstrate that newly restored forests can be readily incorporated as foraging and roosting habitats by these species, and that C. perspicillata alters its roosting behavior in relation to preferred food availability. These results, when combined with data on the diet of the studied species, show consistent evidence of the potential that bats have to improve species diversity of anthropogenic plantings with their own natural seed dispersal. © 2012 Elsevier B.V.

Ecologia e comportamento do Cuxiú-Preto (Chiropotes Satanas) na paisagem fragmentada da Amazônia Oriental

Cuxiús são primatas frugívoros especializados na predação de sementes. O cuxiú-preto (Chiropotes satanas), atualmente ameaçado de extinção, é endêmico de uma área da Amazônia oriental brasileira bastante povoada e desmatada. O principal objetivo deste estudo foi pesquisar o comportamento e a ecologia de dois grupos de cuxiús-pretos vivendo sob diferentes graus de fragmentação de hábitat, de maneira a entender como parâmetros ecológicos nestes diferentes contextos influenciam estratégias comportamentais. Além disso, o estudo procurou identificar fatores que limitam a viabilidade a longo prazo do cuxiú-preto e coletar informações que possam contribuir com planos de manejo e conservação. O estudo foi realizado na margem direita do rio Tocantins, no reservatório de Tucuruí, Estado do Pará, Brasil (415'S, 4931'W). Dois grupos de cuxiús-pretos foram estudados: um (denominado T4) em um grande fragmento de floresta situado na margem do reservatório (1.300 ha, 39 indivíduos) e outro numa pequena ilha (19,4 ha, oito indivíduos) coberta por floresta. O comportamento dos dois grupos foi monitorado durante 12 meses (1.153 horas de observação) utilizando metodologias de amostragem por varredura e de todas as ocorrências por 4 a 5 dias consecutivos por mês por grupo. Além de coletar dados sobre seus orçamentos de atividades, todos os recursos alimentares utilizados foram documentados, os percursos diários anotados e as interações sociais intra e interespécies registradas. Transecções botânicas (10 x 100 ha) cobrindo um hectare no sítio T4 e 0,5 ha no sítio Ilha foram estabelecidas e uma subamostra de árvores (DAP ≥ 10 cm) e cipós (DAP ≥ 5 cm) foi marcada e medida para um inventário florístico e para a coleta de dados fenológicos que ocorreu em intervalos de 30 dias durante 14 meses. Os dois grupos diferiram em todos os aspectos de seu comportamento e ecologia. O tempo empregado em diferentes atividades variou significativamente entre eles. O deslocamento (35,4%) foi responsável pela maior proporção do orçamento de atividades anual do grupo T4, enquanto o grupo Ilha dedicou mais tempo para a alimentação (30,0%). Interações sociais foram responsáveis por uma proporção relativamente grande do orçamento de atividades dos dois grupos (T4 8,5%; Ilha 15,2%). Ao longo do periodo do estudo ambos os grupos consumiram um grande número de diferentes espécies vegetais (173 grupo T4; 132 grupo Ilha; 240 ambos) e suas dietas variaram significantemente tanto em termos de itens consumidos quanto em composição taxonômica, sendo que a dieta do grupo T4 foi mais diversa. Ambos os grupos despenderam a maior parte de seu tempo consumindo sementes (T4 54,0%; Ilha 59,9%), apesar de sua dieta também incluir outros itens tais como polpa de frutos (T4 25,0%; Ilha 13,7%), flores (T4 12,3%; Ilha 17,4%) e, em menor grau, medula de galhos e artrópodes. O grupo T4 utilizou uma área de 98,6 ha, enquanto os membros do grupo Ilha utilizaram 17,2 ha. O uso do espaço e o tamanho do percurso diário (T4 4025 m 994 m; Island 2807 m 289 m) variaram entre os grupos e estiveram ligados, no grupo T4, à variação no tamanho do grupo ao longo do ano resultante de seu sistema de organização social de fissão-fusão. Ao contrário, o grupo Ilha foi mais coeso. As diferenças na ecologia e comportamento dos dois grupos estiveram ligadas ás diferenças em seus respectivos hábitats. O tamanho dos sítios foi importante mas também o foi a variação na disponibilidade de alimentos determinada pela composição taxonômica da vegetação dos mesmos. Resultados do inventário florístico revelaram uma maior diversidade de espécies no sítio T4. No entanto importantes espécies alimentares estavam ausentes ou disponíveis em quantidades variáveis em ambos os sítios. Além do valor intrínseco do conhecimento sobre as características ecológicas do cuxiú-preto, o conhecimento detalhado acumulado neste estudo pode contribuir para a formulação de ações de conservação e planos de manejo, assim como para a identificação de fatores que limitam a viabilidade a longo prazo das populações remanescentes nas paisagens fragmentadas da Amazônia oriental.

Ecologia de cuxiús (Chiropotes Satanas) na Amazônia oriental: perspectivas para a conservação de populações fragmentadas

Encontrados na Amazônia brasileira do Maranhão ao Amazonas e Rondônia, os cuxiús (Chiropotes albinasus e Chiropotes satanas) são primatas especializados na predação de sementes. Visando caracterizar padrões de atividade e exploração de recursos alimentares, dois grupos sociais (TU e B4) de C. satanas foram monitorados entre julho e novembro de 2001 na área de influência do reservatório da UHE de Tucuruí (PA). O grupo IG (C.s. utahicki), de 24 indivíduos, ocupa uma ilha de 100 ha e o grupo B4 (C.s. satanas), com 27 indivíduos, habita uma área de mata contínua, ambas protegidas pela Eletronorte S.A. Dados quantitativos foram coletados em amostras de varredura, com intervalo de 5 min, realizadas continuamente durante 5 dias por mês. Observações complementares foram registradas de forma ad libitum durante todo o trabalho, de abril a novembro. Um total de 5490 registros foram coletados para o grupo IG (apenas o comportamento alimentar do grupo B4 foi analisado aqui), que foram distribuídos entre alimentação (58,8%), deslocamento (30,8%), parado (9,5%) e outras atividades (0,9%). Estas proporções variaram consideravelmente entre meses. Cento e dez espécies diferentes de plantas foram exploradas pelos cuxiús, mas não foi observada insetivoria. Como esperado, o componente maior da dieta foi semente em ambos os casos (grupo IG: 75,6%, n = 2721 registros, grupo B4: 49,6%, n = 1865). Flor, fruto, broto foliar e o mesocarpo de cocos de palmeiras complementaram a dieta. Padrão semelhante na variação do consumo de diferentes itens foi observado nos dois grupos entre setembro e novembro. A diversidade taxonômica da dieta do grupo IG foi maior do que a do B4, como também foi a área de vida (100 contra 57 ha). Não foi encontrado um padrão sistemático de variação no tamanho de agrupamento de forrageio. Os resultados do estudo indicam um potencial muito grande para a conservação a longo prazo de populações remanescentes de cuxiús na paisagem fragmentada da região. Palavras chave: Chiropotes satanas, fragmentação, dieta, orçamento de atividades, conservação.

Comportamento alimentar do Cuxiú-Preto (Chiroptes Satanas) na área de influência do Reservatório da Usina Hidrelétrica de Tucuruí-Pará

A Usina Hidrelétrica de Tucuruí, construída em 1985, criou um lago de 2430 km² (3°43'-5°15'S, 4992'-50°00'W) que isolou populações do cuxiú-preto (Chiropotes satanas), um primata ameaçado de extinção, em uma série de ilhas e outros fragmentos de hábitat. Este estudo foi realizado em dois pontos na margem direita do lago, um na mata contínua (T4) e outro em uma ilha de 16,3 hectares (Su), com grupos de 34 e sete indivíduos, respectivamente. O objetivo principal foi avaliar a influência da fragmentação de hábitat sobre o comportamento de forrageio dos cuxiús. Dados básicos foram coletados em amostras de varredura de um minuto de duração e cinco de intervalo, e o comportamento de forrageio foi registrado em maiores detalhes através da amostragem de árvore focal e de todas as ocorrências. As categorias comportamentais básicas foram locomoção, descanso, forrageio, alimentação e interação social, com algumas subcategorias. De julho a dezembro de 2002 foram obtidos 3501 registras (varredura) para o grupo T4 e 835 para o grupo Su. O orçamento de atividades de T4 foi 55,8% de locomoção, 21,7% alimentação, 16,1% descanso, 3,6% forrageio, com 2,8% de interação social. No caso de Su, a alimentação foi registrada em uma proporção semelhante (22,4%), mas foi registrada uma proporção significativamente menor de locomoção (45,9%) e maior de descanso (27.0%). Uma diferença grande foi encontrada também no numero de espécies vegetais exploradas por seus recursos alimentares, sendo 40 por T4 (maior família Arecaceae) e apenas 22 por Su (maior família Lecythidaceae), embora não foi encontrada uma diferença significativa na diversidade de suas dietas. A composição da dieta dos dois grupos foi significativamente diferente, sendo o item mais utilizado por T4 as sementes imaturas (embora o mesocarpo de frutos de palmeiras também foi importante), enquanto o consumo de flores — praticamente todas da espécie Alexa grandiflora (Leguminosae) — foi muito alto no grupo Su. As diferenças entre grupos parecem estar relacionadas, pelo menos parcialmente, à diferença no tamanho da área de vida, que foi de 68,9 hectares para T4 e apenas 16,3 ha (toda a área da ilha) para Su. Aspectos do comportamento dos membros do grupo Su, como as taxas altas de descanso e consumo de flores, parecem refletir efeitos da fragmentação de hábitat sobre sua ecologia, com implicações negativas para sua sobrevivência a longo prazo. Espera-se que estes resultados contribuam de forma significativa para o desenvolvimento de estratégias efetivas de conservação tanto deste importante primata, como também da paisagem fragmentada da Amazônia oriental.

Isolation and characterization of microsatellites markers for two South American frogs (Leptodactylus bufonius and L. chaquensis) using next generation sequencing

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Ocorrência e distribuição espacial de mamíferos não-voadores em reflorestamento no sudeste do Brasil

The Conservation in countrysides landscapes only it will be understood in the context of the habitat fragmentation that have been affected the species richness, abundance and distribution. We carried out a mammal survey in platation forest at São Paulo State and 8 we discussed the species richness comparing with others sites surveyed elsewhere. We investigate the landscape influence in the mammal species distribution through spatial analysis. The absence of primate species in plantation forests appear to be a pattern for this environments. The species richness was similar among areas and it was higher when there have contiguous native forest remnants. Moreover the landscape interference don’t appeared affect the mammal species distribution. In overview the landscape connectivity is ameliorate with forest plantation. However, those species more susceptible to extinction in fragmented landscape only can persist when there are contiguous forest fragments from the plantation forests. The management of plantation forests can improves the conservation value for medium and large size mammals species at countryside landscapes.

Efeito da matriz na capacidade de aves flrestais moverem-se na paisagem

Matrix can be defined as a portion of the landscape, that somewhere in time suffered intense human disturbance, such as decreasing of native vegetation. The matrix surrounding the forest fragments may create a certain resistance to the movements of individuals (RICKETTS, 2001). The Atlantic rainforest present in the Corumbataí river basin lost about 89% of its original vegetation, leading to a highly fragmented landscape (VALENTE e VETTORAZZI, 2005). In this context, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of the matrix and the characteristic capacity of two forest birds, Dysithamnus mentalis and Basileuterus flaveolus, moving around the landscape. With this aim, six fragments were selected, three with sugar cane matrix, three with Eucalyptus sp. matrix. The methodology utilized to evaluate the response of the birds was playback technique. First the vocalizations were carried out at the forest matrix boundary, in the edge, attracting individuals to the matrix. As the responses were generated, the playback was moved increasingly inside the matrix, observing the distances traveled by the species. The control trials were conducted inside the fragments, the playback was played at the edge and as the responses were observed, the vocalizations were carried out inside the fragment until the moment that individuals ceased answers. It could be observed that for individuals of D. mentalis the matrix generated a high resistance, because no individual entered the matrix. For B. flaveolus the average distance traveled in both matrices was 70 meters, indicating statistically high resistance of the sugar cane matrix and Eucalyptus sp. Considering the characteristics of different matrices, it was found that both matrices generate similar resistance in the movement of these species

Can Roads Be Used as Transects for Primate Population Surveys?

Line transect distance sampling (LTDS) can be applied to either trails or roads. However, it is likely that sampling along roads might result in biased density estimates. In this paper, we compared the results obtained with LTDS applied on trails and roads for two primate species (Callithrix penicillata and Callicebus nigrifrons) to clarify whether roads are appropriate transects to estimate densities. We performed standard LTDS surveys in two nature reserves in south-eastern Brazil. Effective strip width and population density were different between trails and roads for C. penicillata, but not for C. nigrifrons. The results suggest that roads are not appropriate for use as transects in primate surveys, at least for some species. Further work is required to fully understand this issue, but in the meantime we recommend that researchers avoid using roads as transects or treat roads and trails as covariates when sampling on roads is unavoidable. Copyright (C) 2012 S. Karger AG, Basel

Evolution of South African Bruniaceae: evidence from ecological and geographical investigations

The central aim of the present study was to analyse ecological and geographical mechanisms that led to the species diversity and distribution pattern of the South African (sub-) endemic Bruniaceae shown today. To answer the question if the endangerment of some species and the sometimes restricted distribution area is due to an incongruence of pollination and breeding system, pollinator observations and the breeding system were analysed. rnThe effectiveness of the plant-pollinator interactions should be reflected in the reproductive success wherefore fruit set analyses were carried out. The genetic constitution of distant and close-by populations along a spatial gradient should illuminate gene-flow or habitat isolation that could have led to the species diversity. Since niche-inhabitation could be shown in the present study, an overall biogeographical analysis illuminated the distribution pattern on family level and the geographical as well as ecological factors that led to species persistence. rnThe study illuminated that the plant-pollinator interactions and the breeding system are adaptations to the fynbos biome but can not be defined as factors that drove speciation or have tremendous influence on distribution of Bruniaceae. In fact the geography of South Africa with its fragmented landscape as well as close niche-inhabitation of co-occuring species is the reason for species diversity and the recent distribution.rn

Análisis multitemporal del cambio de uso del suelo, en el Paisaje Terrestre Protegido Miraflor Moropotente Nicaragua, 1993-2011

El análisis multitemporal permite detectar cambios entre diferentes fechas de referencia, deduciendo la evolución del medio natural o las repercusiones de la acción humana sobre el medio. El propósito del estudio fue evaluar el cambio de uso del suelo en el Paisaje Terrestre Miraflor Moropotente en el período 1993-2011, a través de imágenes satelitales, a fin de determinar el estado de fragmentación del paisaje. Los cambios de usos de suelo fueron derivados de la clasificación de tres imágenes Landsat TM, con una resolución espacial de 30 metros tomadas en febrero de 1993, abril de 2000 y enero 2011. Se realizó una verificación en campo para la identificación de coberturas de suelo y la corroboración en las imágenes satelitales. La fragmentación se realizó con el cálculo de métricas e índices de fragmentación a nivel del paisaje. Los principales resultados muestran que los cambios de uso de suelo están determinados por la degradación antrópica, principalmente en la conversión de la vegetación nativa a espacios agrícolas y la expansión de la ganadería. El crecimiento demográfico y los monocultivos van ejerciendo presión sobre el bosque, transformando zonas de vocación forestal a cultivos agrícolas. Los cambios de cobertura han significado un paisaje fragmentado con diferentes grados de perturbación, que conllevan a una disminución de la superficie de hábitats naturales, reducción del tamaño de los fragmentos y aislamientos de los mismos.

Historical and contemporary mating patterns in remnant populations of the forest tree Fraxinus excelsior L.

Genetic variation at microsatellite markers was used to quantify genetic structure and mating behavior in a severely fragmented population of the wind-pollinated, wind-dispersed temperate tree Fraxinus excelsior in a deforested catchment in Scotland. Remnants maintain high levels of genetic diversity, comparable with those reported for continuous populations in southeastern Europe, and show low interpopulation differentiation (Theta = 0.080), indicating that historical gene exchange has not been limited (Nm = 3.48). We estimated from seeds collected from all trees producing fruits in three of five remnants that F. excelsior is predominantly outcrossing (t(m). = 0.971 +/- 0.028). Use of a neighborhood model approach to describe the relative contribution of local and long-distance pollen dispersal indicates that pollen gene flow into each of the three remnants is extensive (46-95%) and pollen dispersal has two components. The first is very localized and restricted to tens of meters around the mother trees. The second is a long-distance component with dispersal occurring over several kilometers. Effective dispersal distances, accounting for the distance and directionality to mother trees of sampled pollen donors, average 328 m and are greater than values reported for a continuous population. These results suggest that the opening of the landscape facilitates airborne pollen movement and may alleviate the expected detrimental genetic effects of fragmentation.

Utilisation of analogous climate locations to produce resilient biodiversity plantings for infrastructure developments

Developers have an obligation to biodiversity when considering the impact their development may have on the environment, with some choosing to go beyond the legal requirement for planning consent. Climate change projections over the 21st century indicate a climate warming and thus the species selected for habitat creation need to be able to withstand the pressures associated with these forecasts. A process is therefore required to identify resilient plantings for sites subject to climate change. Local government ecologists were consulted on their views on the use of plants of non-native provenance or how they consider resilience to climate change as part of their planting recommendations. There are mixed attitudes towards non-native species, but with studies already showing the impact climate change is having on biodiversity, action needs to be taken to limit further biodiversity loss, particularly given the heavily fragmented landscape preventing natural migration. A methodology has been developed to provide planners and developers with recommendations for plant species that are currently adapted to the climate the UK will experience in the future. A climate matching technique, that employs a GIS, allows the identification of European locations that currently experience the predicted level of climate change at a given UK location. Once an appropriate location has been selected, the plant species present in this area are then investigated for suitability for planting in the UK. The methodology was trialled at one site, Eastern Quarry in Kent, and suitable climate matched locations included areas in north-western France. Through the acquisition of plant species data via site visits and online published material, a species list was created, which considered original habitat design, but with added resilience to climate change.

Padrões de organização das assembleias de aves florestais em uma paisagem fragmentada de Floresta Atlântica

Brazil is home to one of the richest avifaunas the world, which is subject to high levels of environmental degradation, in particular forest fragmentation. The Atlantic Forest biome depicts this history of devastation and today remains as small isolated fragments on highly degraded landscapes. This project aimed to evaluate the effects of forest fragmentation in an area with Atlantic Forest remnants in northern Paraná (Brazil) on the distribution and the organization of assemblage of forest birds and tested the hypothesis that the structure of the assembly in the fragments is different than expected by chance. We did four qualitative samplings of birds in three sets of forest fragments in the landscape, each with three fragments: large, medium and small. The method applied in the sampling was point counts along transects, traveled randomly for four hours in each fragment. Samples were taken in two periods: from September to November / 2013, and between March and May / 2014. The structure of the meeting was assessed by rates of co-occurring species (Checkerboard and CScore) and α diversity patterns (wealth) and β (turnover of species), while the landscape structure was analyzed from the parameters: area, distance between fragments, fractal dimension, edge density, fragment shape index and nuclear area index. The null hypothesis of no structure in the assembly of birds in the landscape was tested with null models from the co-occurrence indexes. The effects of landscape structure on the assembly of the structure were analyzed by the Mantel test and principal component analysis (PCA). The assembly of the structure in the landscape showed a pattern of spatiotemporal organization significantly different from that expected by chance, revealing a structure most influenced by segregation of the species. The fragments showed significant differences in richness, unlike sets of fragments, indicating relative homogeneity in the landscape structure. The differences between the size and the distance between the fragments significantly influenced the patterns of organization of the meeting of forest birds in the landscape and patterns of α and β diversity, indicating that the higher the fragment and smaller distances between them, more the standard of species cooccurrence is different than expected by chance. Thus, the fragmented landscape of remnants of the northern Paraná Atlantic Forest still has availability of environmental resources and physical characteristics that allow a persistent organizational structure of the assembly of forest birds in space over time.

Ecological drivers of a vector borne pathogen: distribution and abundance of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato and its vector Ixodes ricinus in Scotland

Vector-borne disease emergence in recent decades has been associated with different environmental drivers including changes in habitat, hosts and climate. Lyme borreliosis is among the most important vector-borne diseases in the Northern hemisphere and is an emerging disease in Scotland. Transmitted by Ixodid tick vectors between large numbers of wild vertebrate host species, Lyme borreliosis is caused by bacteria from the Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato species group. Ecological studies can inform how environmental factors such as host abundance and community composition, habitat and landscape heterogeneity contribute to spatial and temporal variation in risk from B. burgdorferi s.l. In this thesis a range of approaches were used to investigate the effects of vertebrate host communities and individual host species as drivers of B. burgdorferi s.l. dynamics and its tick vector Ixodes ricinus. Host species differ in reservoir competence for B. burgdorferi s.l. and as hosts for ticks. Deer are incompetent transmission hosts for B. burgdorferi s.l. but are significant hosts of all life-stages of I. ricinus. Rodents and birds are important transmission hosts of B. burgdorferi s.l. and common hosts of immature life-stages of I. ricinus. In this thesis, surveys of woodland sites revealed variable effects of deer density on B. burgdorferi prevalence, from no effect (Chapter 2) to a possible ‘dilution’ effect resulting in lower prevalence at higher deer densities (Chapter 3). An invasive species in Scotland, the grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis), was found to host diverse genotypes of B. burgdorferi s.l. and may act as a spill-over host for strains maintained by native host species (Chapter 4). Habitat fragmentation may alter the dynamics of B. burgdorferi s.l. via effects on the host community and host movements. In this thesis, there was lack of persistence of the rodent associated genospecies of B. burgdorferi s.l. within a naturally fragmented landscape (Chapter 3). Rodent host biology, particularly population cycles and dispersal ability are likely to affect pathogen persistence and recolonization in fragmented habitats. Heterogeneity in disease dynamics can occur spatially and temporally due to differences in the host community, habitat and climatic factors. Higher numbers of I. ricinus nymphs, and a higher probability of detecting a nymph infected with B. burgdorferi s.l., were found in areas with warmer climates estimated by growing degree days (Chapter 2). The ground vegetation type associated with the highest number of I. ricinus nymphs varied between studies in this thesis (Chapter 2 & 3) and does not appear to be a reliable predictor across large areas. B. burgdorferi s.l. prevalence and genospecies composition was highly variable for the same sites sampled in subsequent years (Chapter 2). This suggests that dynamic variables such as reservoir host densities and deer should be measured as well as more static habitat and climatic factors to understand the drivers of B. burgdorferi s.l. infection in ticks. Heterogeneity in parasite loads amongst hosts is a common finding which has implications for disease ecology and management. Using a 17-year data set for tick infestations in a wild bird community in Scotland, different effects of age and sex on tick burdens were found among four species of passerine bird (Chapter 5). There were also different rates of decline in tick burdens among bird species in response to a long term decrease in questing tick pressure over the study. Species specific patterns may be driven by differences in behaviour and immunity and highlight the importance of comparative approaches. Combining whole genome sequencing (WGS) and population genetics approaches offers a novel approach to identify ecological drivers of pathogen populations. An initial analysis of WGS from B. burgdorferi s.s. isolates sampled 16 years apart suggests that there is a signal of measurable evolution (Chapter 6). This suggests demographic analyses may be applied to understand ecological and evolutionary processes of these bacteria. This work shows how host communities, habitat and climatic factors can affect the local transmission dynamics of B. burgdorferi s.l. and the potential risk of infection to humans. Spatial and temporal heterogeneity in pathogen dynamics poses challenges for the prediction of risk. New tools such as WGS of the pathogen (Chapter 6) and blood meal analysis techniques will add power to future studies on the ecology and evolution of B. burgdorferi s.l.