Violence contre les policiers : comprendre l'évolution du taux de voies de fait contre les policiers au Canada

La violence contre les policiers a des répercussions importantes à la fois chez les policiers et pour les administrateurs de la police. En 2005, le taux canadien de voies de fait contre la police a atteint son plus haut sommet en plusieurs décennies, faisant état d’une situation préoccupante. Plusieurs provinces canadiennes connaissent d’ailleurs une hausse marquée de la violence contre leurs policiers depuis plusieurs années. Cette étude vise donc à examiner et à comprendre l’évolution du phénomène de violence contre les policiers au Canada par l’identification de facteurs qui pourraient expliquer les variations du taux de voies de fait contre les policiers. La méthode d’analyse privilégiée dans le cadre de cette étude est une analyse transversale de séries chronologiques regroupées (pooled time series) qui traite des données portant sur les dix provinces canadiennes pour une période allant de 1986 à 2006. Les résultats indiquent que plusieurs facteurs ont un impact sur la violence dont sont victimes les policiers : la proportion de la population âgée entre 15 et 24 ans, la proportion d’hommes de 15 ans et plus, la proportion de la population vivant dans une région urbaine, la proportion de gens divorcés, les taux résiduels de crimes de violence et de crimes rattachés aux drogues, et le nombre d’évasions et de personnes en liberté sans excuse. La présence croissante de policières, qui fait encore l’objet de débats, semble quant à elle réduire le nombre de voies de fait contre la police, quoique l’impact de ce facteur soit de faible portée. Au Québec, la une hausse importante du taux de voies de fait contre les policiers pourrait s’expliquer par la hausse de plusieurs facteurs identifiés comme jouant un rôle dans le phénomène, bien qu’il ne faille pas écarter qu’un changement dans la reportabilité puisse entrer en ligne de compte.

Precursors and prices : structuring the Quebec synthetic drug market

Information recueillie sur les marchés des drogues de synthèse est beaucoup moins avancée que les études sur d'autres marchés de drogues illicites. La classification relativement récente des drogues de synthèse comme substances illicites, couplée avec ses caractéristiques distinctes qui empêchent son observation, a entravé le développement d’évaluations complètes et fiables des caractéristiques structurelles des marchés. Le but de cet article est de fournir un aperçu fiable sur la dynamique interne du marché des drogues synthétiques, en particulier sur ses caractéristiques structurelles et organisationnelles. En utilisant l'information obtenue à partir de 365 drogues de synthèse saisies par les policiers pendant un an, cette étude sera la fusion de deux techniques, soit la composition des drogues illicites et des analyses économiques, afin de tirer des évaluations fiables des caractéristiques structurelles du marché du Québec de drogues synthétiques. Les résultats concernant l'analyse de la composition des drogues indiquent que le marché des drogues synthétiques au Québec est probablement composé d'un nombre élevé de petites structures, ce qui indique un marché compétitif. L'analyse économique a également fourni des informations complémentaires sur le marché des drogues. Selon la région géographique les couts de la production et les relations entre trafiquant et consommateur influencent le prix des drogues. Les résultats de cette recherche mettent l'accent sur la nécessité de concevoir des politiques qui tient compte des différences régionales dans la production de drogue et reflète la nature compétitive de ce marché.

Criminal achievement and offender self-efficacy

La notion de réussite criminelle a essentiellement été définie au moyen de l’indicateur objectif des gains monétaires. Si l’idée selon laquelle l’argent est au coeur de la réussite professionnelle fait l’objet d’un large consensus social, il semble improbable que les gains monétaires permettent à eux seuls d’appréhender la réussite. Pour mieux comprendre certaines dimensions des carrières criminelles telles que la persistance et le désistement, il paraît utile de se pencher sur la manière dont les criminels définissent leur propre réussite. Il a été établi que l’auto-efficacité, soit la croyance que possède un individu en sa capacité à accomplir une tâche, permet de prédire plusieurs dimensions des carrières légitimes. À partir de la théorie sur l’auto-efficacité, ce mémoire examine de quelle manière se forme l’auto-efficacité criminelle. Nous soutenons que les perceptions relatives à la réussite criminelle sont affectées par des facteurs semblables à ceux qui jouent dans le développement de l’auto-efficacité légitime. Nous partons de l’hypothèse que les criminels forgent leur auto-efficacité à partir de quatre sources d’expérience : les réussites personnelles, l’apprentissage vicariant, la persuasion sociale et les états physiologiques. Il est également avancé que certaines caractéristiques individuelles et environnementales ont un impact significatif sur le développement de l’auto-efficacité criminelle. Sur la base d’entrevues auprès de 212 délinquants, nos résultats indiquent que l’auto-efficacité criminelle est une construction complexe fondée sur les caractéristiques individuelles et environnementales, ainsi que sur les expériences criminelles personnelles. Nous discutons de l’impact éventuel de ces conclusions sur l’appréhension de la persévérance et du désistement dans les carrières criminelles.

An exploration of the cases referred to victim-offender mediation within the framework of the juvenile justice system

Ce mémoire de maîtrise cherche à jeter un regard approfondi sur les cas des jeunes contrevenants référés au processus de médiation à Trajet, un organisme de justice alternative à Montréal. Plus précisément, les objectifs sont de décrire les caractéristiques des cas référés, d’explorer leur relation avec la participation au processus de médiation et avec le résultat de celui-ci, et de comparer ces mêmes éléments en regard de deux périodes inclues dans le projet : celle où s’appliquait la Loi sur les jeunes contrevenants et celle où la Loi sur le système de justice pénale pour les adolescents assortie de l’Entente cadre sont entrés en vigueur. Des méthodes de recherche quantitatives ont été utilisées pour analyser les cas référés à Trajet sur une période de 10 ans (1999-2009). Des analyses descriptives ont permis d’établir les caractéristiques communes ou divergentes entre les cas référés à Trajet et ceux référés à d’autres programmes de médiation. Des analyses bi-variées ont révélé qu’une relation significative existait entre la participation au processus de médiation et l’âge et le sexe des contrevenants, le nombre de crimes commis par ceux-ci, le nombre de victimes impliquées, le type de victime, l’âge et le sexe des victimes et, le délai entre la commission du crime et le transfert du dossier à Trajet. La réalisation d’une régression logistique a révélé que trois caractéristiques prédisent de manière significative la participation à la médiation : l’âge des contrevenants, le nombre de victimes impliquées et le délai entre la commission du crime et le transfert du dossier à Trajet. La faible proportion d’échecs du processus de médiation a rendu inutile la réalisation d’analyses bi et multi-variées eu égard au résultat du processus de médiation. Des différences significatives ont été trouvées entre les cas référés en médiation sous la Loi sur les jeunes contrevenants et ceux référés sous la Loi sur le système de justice pénale pour les adolescents assortie à l’Entente cadre en ce qui a trait au type de crime, au nombre de délits commis, à l’existence d’une référence précédente à Trajet, aux raisons pour lesquelles la médiation n’a pas eu lieu, à la restitution sous toutes ces formes et, plus spécialement, la restitution financière. La participation à la médiation est apparue plus probable sous la LSJPA que sous la LJC. Des corrélations partielles ont montré que différentes caractéristiques étaient associées à la participation à la médiation dans les deux périodes en question. Seule une caractéristique, le sexe des victimes, s’est avérée reliée significativement à la participation à la médiation tant sous la LJC que sous la LSJPA. Les résultats de ce projet ont donné lieu à une connaissance plus approfondie des cas référés à Trajet pour un processus de médiation et à une exploration de l’impact que la LSJPA et l’Entente cadre sur ce processus. Toutefois, l’échantillon étant limité au cas traités à Trajet ne permet pas la généralisation de ces résultats à l’ensemble des cas référés aux organismes de justice alternative du Québec pour le processus de médiation.

Aggression and accountability : how caregivers and law enforcers cope

Objectif. L’objectif est de comprendre comment les intervenants en relation d’aide et les agents des forces de l’ordre composent avec la violence au travail et le stress lié à l’imputabilité. Un cadre théorique basé sur l’identité professionnelle est proposé afin de comprendre la modulation de la santé psychologique au travail et testé via le Professional Quality of Life des intervenants en protection de la jeunesse. Les facteurs de prédiction de la banalisation de la violence au travail et des impacts psychologiques de cette banalisation sont également étudiés. Méthodologie. Un sondage mené auprès d’un échantillon représentatif constitué de 301 intervenants en protection de la jeunesse a permis d’examiner le Professional Quality of Life. Les effets de l’exposition à la violence en milieu de travail, à l’exposition au matériel traumatique et du stress lié à l’imputabilité sur la fatigue de compassion ont été analysés à l’aide d’équation structurelle. Les effets indirects attribuables au genre, au soutien organisationnel perçu, à l’adhésion à l’identité professionnelle, aux stratégies d’adaptation et à la confiance en ses moyens pour gérer un client agressif ont été mesurés. Pour l’examen des facteurs de prédiction de la banalisation de la violence au travail, les résultats d’un sondage mené auprès de 1141 intervenants en relation d’aide et des forces de l’ordre ont été analysés à l’aide de régression linéaire. L’analyse des réponses des 376 intervenants de cet échantillon ayant rapporté avoir été perturbé par un acte de violence au travail a permis de mesurer l’impact de la banalisation sur les conséquences psychologiques suite à une victimisation au travail. Les effets indirects attribuables à la banalisation de la violence ont été mesurés. Des analyses différenciées en fonction du sexe ont également été menées. Résultats. L’exposition à la violence, le sentiment d’imputabilité et l’évitement amplifiaient la fatigue de compassion chez les intervenants en protection de la jeunesse sondés. Les attitudes masculines, l’adhésion à l’identité professionnelle, la confiance en ses moyens pour gérer les clients agressifs l’atténuaient. Quant aux facteurs de prédiction de la banalisation de la violence au travail, les participants masculins étaient plus enclins que les femmes à la normaliser. Les agents des forces de l’ordre percevaient davantage la violence comme tabou que les intervenants en relation d’aide. Les facteurs organisationnels avaient tous un effet négatif sur le tabou entourant la violence au travail. Finalement, l’âge, les victimisations antérieures, les blessures graves et percevoir la violence au travail comme un tabou augmentaient le nombre de conséquences psychologiques suite à une victimisation. Les analyses différenciées en fonction du sexe ont identifié des facteurs de prédiction spécifiques aux hommes et aux femmes. Implications. Lors de déploiement de stratégies organisationnelles afin d’aider les employés à gérer avec les stress liés au travail, les organisations doivent considérer l’identité professionnelle de leur travailleur ainsi que des différences en fonction du sexe et du genre.

An exploratory investigation of America's most costly delinquents: Juvenile firesetters

This study focused on the instruments that are currently being used by fire department personnel to identify and classify juvenile firesetters, these instruments, as published by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (F.E.M.A.) have never been empirically validated as to their ability to discriminate between first time and multiple firesetters and to predict the degree of risk for future firesetting by juveniles that come to the attention of authorities for firesetting behaviors. The study was descriptive in nature and not designed to test the validity of these instruments. The study was designed to test the ability of the instruments to discriminate between first time and multiple firesetters and to categorize known firesetters, based on the motive for firesetting, as to their degree or risk for future firesetting.^ The results suggest that the F.E.M.A. instruments are of little use in discriminating between first time and multiple firesetters. The F.E.M.A. instruments were not able to categorize juvenile firesetters as to their potential risk for future firesetting. A subset of variables from the F.E.M.A. instruments was identified that may be useful in discriminating between youth that are troubled firesetters and those that are not. ^

The identification of child abuse in Harris County in 1998

Characteristics of child abuse cases are not well known. In this study I collected data on 70 child abuse cases that were reported to Children's Protective Services in Harris County in 1998. The purpose of this study was to determine the factors in Harris County that lead to the identification of physical and sexual abuse. In order to answer the questions of who, what, where and when relative to the discovery of abuse I applied the same questionnaire (see Appendix) to each of 35 Sexual Abuse case reports and to each of 35 Physical Abuse/Neglect case reports. Answers to the first four questions were arranged by frequency distribution to show the predominant reporter, the 10 most common indicators, the most common locale, and the most frequent timing. Tables of the age, sex, and ethnicity of the children indicate the identity of those whose victimization was most reported. In addition the relationship between the form questions and the characteristics of the children was explored. A comparison of Sexual Abuse cases with Physical Abuse/Neglect cases was conducted and the results were analyzed and recorded in the Tables. ^ Child maltreatment often has negative short and long term effects on children's mental health and development. Suicide, violence, delinquency, drug and alcohol abuse and other forms of criminality are frequently child abuse related. Early detection and treatment helps to alleviate the myriad mental and physical ailments that untreated victims present as adults. This translates into medical dollar savings. ^ The long term objectives of my research were to reduce the number of undetected and unreported child abuse cases in Harris County by formulating better educational programs and literature for medical professionals and other personnel who are in contact with children. ^

Hepatitis B and C infections in U.S. incarcerated populations: Prevalence and related mortality

Published reports have consistently indicated high prevalence of serologic markers for hepatitis B (HBV) and hepatitis C (HCV) infection in U.S. incarcerated populations. Quantifying the current and projected burden of HBV and HCV infection and hepatitis-related sequelae in correctional healthcare systems with even modest precision remains elusive, however, because the prevalence and sequelae of HBV and HCV in U.S. incarcerated populations are not well-studied. This dissertation contributes to the assessment of the burden of HBV and HCV infections in U.S. incarcerated populations by addressing some of the deficiencies and gaps in previous research. ^ Objectives of the three dissertation studies were: (1) To investigate selected study-level factors as potential sources of heterogeneity in published HBV seroprevalence estimates in U.S. adult incarcerated populations (1975-2005), using meta-regression techniques; (2) To quantify the potential influence of suboptimal sensitivity of screening tests for antibodies to hepatitis C virus (anti-HCV) on previously reported anti-HCV prevalence estimates in U.S. incarcerated populations (1990-2005), by comparing these estimates to error-adjusted anti-HCV prevalence estimates in these populations; (3) To estimate death rates due to HBV, HCV, chronic liver disease (CLD/cirrhosis), and liver cancer from 1984 through 2003 in male prisoners in custody of the Texas Department of Criminal Justice (TDCJ) and to quantify the proportion of CLD/cirrhosis and liver cancer prisoner deaths attributable to HBV and/or HCV. ^ Results were as follows. Although meta-regression analyses were limited by the small body of literature, mean population age and serum collection year appeared to be sources of heterogeneity, respectively, in prevalence estimates of antibodies to HBV antigen (HBsAg+) and any positive HBV marker. Other population characteristics and study methods could not be ruled out as sources of heterogeneity. Anti-HCV prevalence is likely somewhat higher in male and female U.S. incarcerated populations than previously estimated in studies using anti-HCV screening tests alone without the benefit of repeat or additional testing. Death rates due to HBV, HCV, CLD/cirrhosis, and liver cancer from 1984 through 2003 in TDCJ male prisoners exceeded state and national rates. HCV rates appeared to be increasing and disproportionately affecting Hispanics. HCV was implicated in nearly one-third of liver cancer deaths. ^

A global perspective on intimate partner violence during pregnancy: An analysis of twelve developing countries

Violence against women has been recognized as a significant worldwide human rights issue and public health problem. Women of reproductive age may be particularly at risk, and pregnancy may trigger or escalate violence. Using data available from Demographic and Health Surveys on 271,103 women of reproductive age (15-49) from Bolivia, Cameroon, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Egypt, Haiti, India, Kenya, Nicaragua, Peru, South Africa, and Zambia, this study examined the nature of domestic violence during pregnancy in developing countries, including prevalence, demographic and risk factors, maternal and child health outcomes, perpetrators of violence, help-seeking behavior, and social support. In the majority of countries analyzed, violence during pregnancy consistently occurred at approximately one-third the rate at which domestic violence occurred overall. Younger women and women with more children were particularly at risk. Abuse during pregnancy was significantly associated with history of a terminated pregnancy and under-5 child mortality in most countries, and with neonatal and post-neonatal mortality in most Latin American countries. Women who were abused during pregnancy were most often abused by their current or former husband or boyfriend and most never attempted to seek help. In most countries that examined social support, women abused during pregnancy had significantly less contact with family and friends. Implications for practice and research are discussed. ^

The public health applications of law enforcement medical direction: A practical experience with the Dallas Police Department

In 2008, 132 law enforcement officers were killed in the line of duty in The United States. Additionally, some have explored both the public health implications of interactions with law enforcement as well as the potential benefits of the use of law enforcement officers as public health and emergency healthcare providers. By virtue of these novel analyses and techniques, professional medical direction of the emerging specialty of law enforcement medicine is needed. This paper, an analysis of law enforcement medical direction through a look at the Dallas Police Medical Direction Program, seeks to examine origins of law enforcement medicine through a comprehensive literature review, as well as begin to define to core competencies of law enforcement medical direction. ^ The unique intersection of public health, medicine and law enforcement, and the subsequent specialty that is developing to manage this interface, is in its relative infancy. An analysis of this nature is in order to begin to lay down the foundations necessary for future study and improvements in the field. ^

Incidence of fatal gunshot injuries occurring to Galveston County residents between 1979--1981

Fatal gunshot injury deaths and their characteristics were ascertained for the population of Galveston County, Texas, for 1979-81. A total of 147 gunshot deaths occurring to residents of Galveston County were enumerated from death certificates, police and hospital records. Residents accounted for 96.1% of all gunshot deaths occurring in the county. The overall firearms death rate was 25 per 100,000 population. This ranked gunshot mortality as the third leading cause of injury death and the sixth leading cause of death from all causes. Gunshot deaths accounted for 10% of all years of life lost due to premature mortality.^ Firearms accounted for 73% of all homicide deaths. The median age of gunshot homicide victims was 27 years. Gunshot homicide mortality was highest among black males with a rate of 61 per 100,000. Rates of 23 per 100,000 and 12 per 100,000 were observed for Hispanic males and black females respectively. Gunshot homicide cases were characterized by use of "low quality" handguns (76.1%), circumstances involving a "relationship breakup" (38.1%), and alcohol consumption (79.6%). The place of occurrence of gunshot homicide was a residence in over half of all cases. The occupation most frequently associated was fishing and farming. Homicide was the primary motivation for 84% of the cases.^ The descriptive epidemiology of gunshot suicide differed from that of gunshot homicide. Firearms accounted for 64% of all suicide deaths. The median age of gunshot suicide victims was 41 years. Gunshot suicide mortality was highest among white males with a rate of 24 per 100,000. Rates of 14 per 100,000 and 9 per 100,000 were observed for black males and Hispanic females respectively. Gunshot suicide cases were characterized by use of "low quality" handguns (69.4%), circumstances involving a "relationship breakup" (39.1%) and alcohol consumption (63%). The place of occurrence was a residence in 80% of the cases. The occupation most frequently associated was police or security guard.^ Strategies for primary prevention are recommended. The research strategy, based on Haddon's model, is suggested for further investigations. ^

Patterns of homicide Houston: Texas, 1987

The situational and interpersonal characteristics of homicides occurring in Houston, Texas, during 1987 were investigated. A total of 328 cases were ascertained from the linking of police computer data, medical examiner's records, and death certificate information. The medical examiner's records contained all of the ascertained cases. The comparability ratio between the medical examiner's records and police and vital statistic data was 1.03 and 0.966, respectively. Data inconsistencies were found between the three information sources on Spanish surname, age, race/ethnicity, external cause of death coding, alcohol and drug involvement, weapon/method used, and Hispanic immigration status. Recommendations for improving the quality of homicide information gathered and for linking homicide surveillance systems were made.^ Males constituted 82% of all victims. The age-adjusted homicide rate for Blacks was 31.1 per 100,000 population, for Hispanics 19.2, and for Anglos 5.4. Among males, Blacks had an age-adjusted rate of 54.5, Hispanics, 31.0, and Anglos 7.5. Among females, Blacks had an age-adjusted rate of 9.3, Hispanics 6.1, and Anglos 3.1. Black males, ages 25-34, had the highest homicide rate, at 96.5.^ Half of all homicides occurred in a residence. Among Hispanic males, homicides occurred most often in the street. Firearms were used to commit 64% of the homicides. Arguments preceded 58% of all cases. Nearly two-thirds of the victims knew their assailant. Only 15% of males compared to 62% of females were killed by a spouse, an intimate acquaintance, or a family member. Blacks (93%) and Hispanics (88%) were more likely than Anglos (70%) to have been killed by persons of the same race/ethnicity. Nearly three-fourths of all Houston Hispanic homicide victims were foreign born.^ Alcohol was detected in 47% of the victims tested. Nearly one-third of those tested had blood alcohol concentrations (BACs) greater than 100 mg%. Males (53%) were more likely than females (20%) to have positive BACs. Hispanic males (64%) were more likely to have detectable BACs than either Black (51%) or Anglo (44%) males.^ Illegal drugs were detected in 20% of the victims tested. One-fourth of the victims who tested positive for drugs had more than one drug in their system at death. The stimulant cocaine was the most commonly detected drug, comprising 53% of all illegal drugs identified.^ Recommendations for the primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention of homicide and for future homicide research are made. ^

The effects of a creative movement program on long-term incarcerated women

The Multicultural Communication Bridge Program, an ongoing project at the Broward Correctional Institution, utilizes creative movement, writing, and drawing as treatment modalities with long-term incarcerated women. This type of programming is new in the prison system thus literature and research supporting the outcomes with this population are lacking. Therefore, a qualitative study was conducted to determine the efficacy of the program. Nine inmates, who have been involved in the program for at least one year, were interviewed to gather information about their personal experiences as a result of their participation. Common themes that were noted include an increase in trust, the expression of emotions, an increase in self esteem, and an improvement in interactions with others. These attributes are believed to be beneficial to these women to ensure a successful community reintegration upon their release from prison. ^

Factors predicting recommendations for civil commitment of sexually violent predators under Florida's Jimmy Ryce Act

This study investigated the factors considered by forensic examiners when evaluating sexually violent predators (SVP) for civil commitment under Florida's “Jimmy Ryce Act.” The project was funded by a pre-doctoral research grant awarded by the Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers (ATSA). ^ This study proposed two specific research questions. First, what is the direct relationship between actuarial risk assessment scores and recommendations for sex offender civil commitment? Second, which other variables are likely to influence SVP commitment decisions, and to what degree? The purpose of the study was to determine if risk assessment practices are evidence-based, and whether offenders selected for commitment meet statutory criteria. ^ The purposive sample of 450 SVPs was drawn from the population of sex offenders evaluated for civil commitment in Florida between July 1, 2000 and June 30, 2001. Data were extracted from SVP evaluations provided by the Florida Department of Children and Families. Using multivariate logistic regression, this correlational research design examined the relationship between the dependent variable, commitment decision, and several sets of independent variables. The independent variables were derived from a review of the literature, and were grouped conceptually according to their degree of correlation with sex offense recidivism. Independent variables included diagnoses, actuarial risk assessment scores, empirically validated static and dynamic risk factors, consensus based risk factors, evaluator characteristics, and demographics. This study investigated the degree to which the identified variables predicted civil commitment decisions. ^ Logistic regression results revealed that the statistically significant predictors of recommendations for sex offender civil commitment were actuarial risk assessment scores, diagnoses of Pedophilia and Paraphilia NOS, psychopathy, younger age of victim, and non-minority race. Discriminant function analysis confirmed that these variables correctly predicted commitment decisions in 90% of cases. ^ It appears that civil commitment evaluators in Florida used empirically-based assessment procedures, and did not make decisions that were heavily influenced by extraneous factors. SVPs recommended for commitment consistently met the criteria set forth by the U.S. Supreme Court in Hendricks v. Kansas (1997): they suffered from a mental abnormality predisposing them to sexual violence, and risk assessment determined that they were likely to reoffend. ^

True and false confessions to an intentional act: A novel experimental paradigm

Due to the powerful nature of confession evidence, it is imperative that we investigate the factors that affect the likelihood of obtaining true and false confessions. Previous research has been conducted with a paradigm limited to the study of false confessions to an act of negligence, thereby limiting the generalizability of the findings. The first goal of the current study was to introduce a novel paradigm involving a more serious, intentional act that can be used in the study of both true and false confessions. The second goal was to explore the effects of two police interrogation tactics, minimization and an offer of leniency, on true and false confession rates. ^ Three hundred and thirty-four undergraduates at a large southeastern university were recruited to participate in a study on problem-solving and decision-making. During the course of the laboratory experiment, participants were induced to intentionally break or not break an experimental rule, an act that was characterized as “cheating.” All participants (i.e., both innocent and guilty) were later accused of the act and interrogated. For half of the participants, the interrogator used minimization tactics, which involved downplaying the seriousness of the offense, expressing sympathy, and providing face-saving excuses, in order to encourage the participant to confess. An offer of leniency was also manipulated in which half the participants were offered a “deal” that involved the option of confessing and accepting a known punishment or not confessing and facing the threat of harsher punishment. Results indicated that guilty persons were more likely to confess than innocent persons, and that the use of minimization and an explicit offer of leniency increased both the true and false confession rates. Furthermore, a cumulative effect of techniques was observed, such that the diagnosticity of the interrogation (the ratio of true confessions to false confessions) decreased as the number of techniques used increased. Taken together, the results suggest that caution should be used when implementing these techniques in the interrogation room. ^