Time domain passivity control for delayed teleoperation

La telepesencia combina diferentes modalidades sensoriales, incluyendo, entre otras, la visual y la del tacto, para producir una sensación de presencia remota en el operador. Un elemento clave en la implementación de sistemas de telepresencia para permitir una telemanipulación del entorno remoto es el retorno de fuerza. Durante una telemanipulación, la energía mecánica es transferida entre el operador humano y el entorno remoto. En general, la energía es una propiedad de los objetos físicos, fundamental en su mutual interacción. En esta interacción, la energía se puede transmitir entre los objetos, puede cambiar de forma pero no puede crearse ni destruirse. En esta tesis, se aplica este principio fundamental para derivar un nuevo método de control bilateral que permite el diseño de sistemas de teleoperación estables para cualquier arquitectura concebible. El razonamiento parte del hecho de que la energía mecánica insertada por el operador humano en el sistema debe transferirse hacia el entorno remoto y viceversa. Tal como se verá, el uso de la energía como variable de control permite un tratamiento más general del sistema que el control convencional basado en variables específicas del sistema. Mediante el concepto de Red de Potencia de Retardo Temporal (RPRT), el problema de definir los flujos de energía en un sistema de teleoperación es solucionado con independencia de la arquitectura de comunicación. Como se verá, los retardos temporales son la principal causa de generación de energía virtual. Este hecho se observa con retardos a partir de 1 milisegundo. Esta energía virtual es añadida al sistema de forma intrínseca y representa la causa principal de inestabilidad. Se demuestra que las RPRTs son transportadoras de la energía deseada intercambiada entre maestro y esclavo pero a la vez generadoras de energía virtual debido al retardo temporal. Una vez estas redes son identificadas, el método de Control de Pasividad en el Dominio Temporal para RPRTs se propone como mecanismo de control para asegurar la pasividad del sistema, y as__ la estabilidad. El método se basa en el simple hecho de que esta energía virtual debido al retardo debe transformarse en disipación. As__ el sistema se aproxima al sistema deseado, donde solo la energía insertada desde un extremo es transferida hacia el otro. El sistema resultante presenta dos cualidades: por un lado la estabilidad del sistema queda garantizada con independencia de la arquitectura del sistema y del canal de comunicación; por el otro, el rendimiento es maximizado en términos de fidelidad de transmisión energética. Los métodos propuestos se sustentan con sistemas experimentales con diferentes arquitecturas de control y retardos entre 2 y 900 ms. La tesis concluye con un experimento que incluye una comunicación espacial basada en el satélite geoestacionario ASTRA. ABSTRACT Telepresence combines different sensorial modalities, including vision and touch, to produce a feeling of being present in a remote location. The key element to successfully implement a telepresence system and thus to allow telemanipulation of a remote environment is force feedback. In a telemanipulation, mechanical energy must convey from the human operator to the manipulated object found in the remote environment. In general, energy is a property of all physical objects, fundamental to their mutual interactions in which the energy can be transferred among the objects and can change form but cannot be created or destroyed. In this thesis, we exploit this fundamental principle to derive a novel bilateral control mechanism that allows designing stable teleoperation systems with any conceivable communication architecture. The rationale starts from the fact that the mechanical energy injected by a human operator into the system must be conveyed to the remote environment and Vice Versa. As will be seen, setting energy as the control variable allows a more general treatment of the controlled system in contrast to the more conventional control of specific systems variables. Through the Time Delay Power Network (TDPN) concept, the issue of defining the energy flows involved in a teleoperation system is solved with independence of the communication architecture. In particular, communication time delays are found to be a source of virtual energy. This fact is observed with delays starting from 1 millisecond. Since this energy is added, the resulting teleoperation system can be non-passive and thus become unstable. The Time Delay Power Networks are found to be carriers of the desired exchanged energy but also generators of virtual energy due to the time delay. Once these networks are identified, the Time Domain Passivity Control approach for TDPNs is proposed as a control mechanism to ensure system passivity and therefore, system stability. The proposed method is based on the simple fact that this intrinsically added energy due to the communication must be transformed into dissipation. Then the system becomes closer to the ambitioned one, where only the energy injected from one end of the system is conveyed to the other one. The resulting system presents two benefits: On one hand, system stability is guaranteed through passivity independently from the chosen control architecture and communication channel; on the other, performance is maximized in terms of energy transfer faithfulness. The proposed methods are sustained with a set of experimental implementations using different control architectures and communication delays ranging from 2 to 900 milliseconds. An experiment that includes a communication Space link based on the geostationary satellite ASTRA concludes this thesis.

Proprioceptive force estimation and control for teleoperation in radioactive environments

A medida que se incrementa la energía de los aceleradores de partículas o iones pesados como el CERN o GSI, de los reactores de fusión como JET o ITER, u otros experimentos científicos, se va haciendo cada vez más imprescindible el uso de técnicas de manipulación remota para la interacción con el entorno sujeto a la radiación. Hasta ahora la tasa de dosis radioactiva en el CERN podía tomar valores cercanos a algunos mSv para tiempos de enfriamiento de horas, que permitían la intervención humana para tareas de mantenimiento. Durante los primeros ensayos con plasma en JET, se alcanzaban valores cercanos a los 200 μSv después de un tiempo de enfriamiento de 4 meses y ya se hacía extensivo el uso de técnicas de manipulación remota. Hay una clara tendencia al incremento de los niveles de radioactividad en el futuro en este tipo de instalaciones. Un claro ejemplo es ITER, donde se esperan valores de 450 Sv/h en el centro del toroide a los 11 días de enfriamiento o los nuevos niveles energéticos del CERN que harán necesario una apuesta por niveles de mantenimiento remotos. En estas circunstancias se enmarca esta tesis, que estudia un sistema de control bilateral basado en fuerza-posición, tratando de evitar el uso de sensores de fuerza/par, cuyo contenido electrónico los hace especialmente sensitivos en estos ambientes. El contenido de este trabajo se centra en la teleoperación de robots industriales, que debido a su reconocida solvencia y facilidad para ser adaptados a estos entornos, unido al bajo coste y alta disponibilidad, les convierte en una alternativa interesante para tareas de manipulación remota frente a costosas soluciones a medida. En primer lugar se considera el problema cinemático de teleoperación maestro-esclavo de cinemática disimilar y se desarrolla un método general para la solución del problema en el que se incluye el uso de fuerzas asistivas para guiar al operador. A continuación se explican con detalle los experimentos realizados con un robot ABB y que muestran las dificultades encontradas y recomendaciones para solventarlas. Se concluye el estudio cinemático con un método para el encaje de espacios de trabajo entre maestro y esclavo disimilares. Posteriormente se mira hacia la dinámica, estudiándose el modelado de robots con vistas a obtener un método que permita estimar las fuerzas externas que actúan sobre los mismos. Durante la caracterización del modelo dinámico, se realizan varios ensayos para tratar de encontrar un compromiso entre complejidad de cálculo y error de estimación. También se dan las claves para modelar y caracterizar robots con estructura en forma de paralelogramo y se presenta la arquitectura de control deseada. Una vez obtenido el modelo completo del esclavo, se investigan diferentes alternativas que permitan una estimación de fuerzas externas en tiempo real, minimizando las derivadas de la posición para minimizar el ruido. Se comienza utilizando observadores clásicos del estado para ir evolucionando hasta llegar al desarrollo de un observador de tipo Luenberger-Sliding cuya implementación es relativamente sencilla y sus resultados contundentes. También se analiza el uso del observador propuesto durante un control bilateral simulado en el que se compara la realimentación de fuerzas obtenida con las técnicas clásicas basadas en error de posición frente a un control basado en fuerza-posición donde la fuerza es estimada y no medida. Se comprueba como la solución propuesta da resultados comparables con las arquitecturas clásicas y sin embargo introduce una alternativa para la teleoperación de robots industriales cuya teleoperación en entornos radioactivos sería imposible de otra manera. Finalmente se analizan los problemas derivados de la aplicación práctica de la teleoperación en los escenarios mencionados anteriormente. Debido a las condiciones prohibitivas para todo equipo electrónico, los sistemas de control se deben colocar a gran distancia de los manipuladores, dando lugar a longitudes de cable de centenares de metros. En estas condiciones se crean sobretensiones en controladores basados en PWM que pueden ser destructivas para el sistema formado por control, cableado y actuador, y por tanto, han de ser eliminadas. En este trabajo se propone una solución basada en un filtro LC comercial y se prueba de forma extensiva que su inclusión no produce efectos negativos sobre el control del actuador. ABSTRACT As the energy on the particle accelerators or heavy ion accelerators such as CERN or GSI, fusion reactors such as JET or ITER, or other scientific experiments is increased, it is becoming increasingly necessary to use remote handling techniques to interact with the remote and radioactive environment. So far, the dose rate at CERN could present values near several mSv for cooling times on the range of hours, which allowed human intervention for maintenance tasks. At JET, they measured values close to 200 μSv after a cooling time of 4 months and since then, the remote handling techniques became usual. There is a clear tendency to increase the radiation levels in the future. A clear example is ITER, where values of 450 Sv/h are expected in the centre of the torus after 11 days of cooling. Also, the new energetic levels of CERN are expected to lead to a more advanced remote handling means. In these circumstances this thesis is framed, studying a bilateral control system based on force-position, trying to avoid the use of force/torque sensors, whose electronic content makes them very sensitive in these environments. The contents of this work are focused on teleoperating industrial robots, which due its well-known reliability, easiness to be adapted to these environments, cost-effectiveness and high availability, are considered as an interesting alternative to expensive custom-made solutions for remote handling tasks. Firstly, the kinematic problem of teloperating master and slave with dissimilar kinematics is analysed and a new general approach for solving this issue is presented. The solution includes using assistive forces in order to guide the human operator. Coming up next, I explain with detail the experiments accomplished with an ABB robot that show the difficulties encountered and the proposed solutions. This section is concluded with a method to match the master’s and slave’s workspaces when they present dissimilar kinematics. Later on, the research studies the dynamics, with special focus on robot modelling with the purpose of obtaining a method that allows to estimate external forces acting on them. During the characterisation of the model’s parameters, a set of tests are performed in order to get to a compromise between computational complexity and estimation error. Key points for modelling and characterising robots with a parallelogram structure are also given, and the desired control architecture is presented. Once a complete model of the slave is obtained, different alternatives for external force estimation are review to be able to predict forces in real time, minimizing the position differentiation to minimize the estimation noise. The research starts by implementing classic state observers and then it evolves towards the use of Luenberger- Sliding observers whose implementation is relatively easy and the results are convincing. I also analyse the use of proposed observer during a simulated bilateral control on which the force feedback obtained with the classic techniques based on the position error is compared versus a control architecture based on force-position, where the force is estimated instead of measured. I t is checked how the proposed solution gives results comparable with the classical techniques and however introduces an alternative method for teleoperating industrial robots whose teleoperation in radioactive environments would have been impossible in a different way. Finally, the problems originated by the practical application of teleoperation in the before mentioned scenarios are analysed. Due the prohibitive conditions for every electronic equipment, the control systems should be placed far from the manipulators. This provokes that the power cables that fed the slaves devices can present lengths of hundreds of meters. In these circumstances, overvoltage waves are developed when implementing drives based on PWM technique. The occurrence of overvoltage is very dangerous for the system composed by drive, wiring and actuator, and has to be eliminated. During this work, a solution based on commercial LC filters is proposed and it is extensively proved that its inclusion does not introduce adverse effects into the actuator’s control.

Control of second-life hybrid battery energy storage system based on modular boost-multilevel buck converter

To fully utilize second-life batteries on the grid system, a hybrid battery scheme needs to be considered for several reasons: the uncertainty over using a single source supply chain for second-life batteries, the differences in evolving battery chemistry and battery configuration by different suppliers to strive for greater power levels, and the uncertainty of degradation within a second-life battery. Therefore, these hybrid battery systems could have widely different module voltage, capacity, and initial state of charge and state of health. In order to suitably integrate and control these widely different batteries, a suitable multimodular converter topology and an associated control structure are required. This paper addresses these issues proposing a modular boost-multilevel buck converter based topology to integrate these hybrid second-life batteries to a grid-tie inverter. Thereafter, a suitable module-based distributed control architecture is introduced to independently utilize each converter module according to its characteristics. The proposed converter and control architecture are found to be flexible enough to integrate widely different batteries to an inverter dc link. Modeling, analysis, and experimental validation are performed on a single-phase modular hybrid battery energy storage system prototype to understand the operation of the control strategy with different hybrid battery configurations.

Knowledge-based Robot Control

The paper is related with the problem of developing autonomous intelligent robots for complex environments. In details it outlines a knowledge-based robot control architecture that combines several techniques in order to supply an ability to adapt and act autonomously in complex environments. The described architecture has been implemented as a robotic system that demonstrates its operation in dynamic environment. Although the robotic system demonstrates a certain level of autonomy, the experiments show that there are situation, in which the developed base architecture should be complemented with additional modules. The last few chapters of the paper describe the experimentation results and the current state of further research towards the developed architecture.

Automation of an underground mining vehicle using reactive navigation and opportunistic localization

This paper describes the implementation of an autonomous navigation system onto a 30 tonne Load-Haul-Dump truck. The control architecture is based on a robust reactive wall-following behaviour. To make it purposeful we provide driving hints derived from an approximate nodal-map. For most of the time, the vehicle is driven with weak localization (odometry). This need only be improved at intersections where decisions must be made - a technique we refer to as opportunistic localization. The truck has achieved full-speed autonomous operation at an artificial test mine, and subsequently, at a operational underground mine.

Reactive navigation and opportunistic localization for autonomous underground mining vehicles

This paper describes an autonomous navigation system for a large underground mining vehicle. The control architecture is based on a robust reactive wall-following behaviour. To make it purposeful we provide driving hints derived from an approximate nodal-map. For most of the time, the vehicle is driven with weak localization (odometry). This need only be improved at intersections where decisions must be made – a technique we refer to as opportunistic localization. The paper briefly reviews absolute and relative navigation strategies, and describes an implementation of a reactive navigation system on a 30 tonne Load-Haul-Dump truck. This truck has achieved full-speed autonomous operation at an artificial test mine, and subsequently, at a operational underground mine.

A Tale of two helicopters

This paper discusses similarities and differences in autonomous helicopters developed at USC and CSIRO. The most significant differences are in the accuracy and sample rate of the sensor systems used for control. The USC vehicle, like a number of others, makes use of a sensor suite that costs an order of magnitude more than the vehicle. The CSIRO system, by contrast, utilizes low-cost inertial, magnetic, vision and GPS to achieve the same ends. We describe the architecture of both autonomous helicopters, discuss the design issues and present comparative results.

A two week persistent navigation and mapping experiment using RatSLAM : insights and current developments

One of the major challenges in achieving long term robot autonomy is the need for a SLAM algorithm that can perform SLAM over the operational lifetime of the robot, preferably without human intervention or supervision. In this paper we present insights gained from a two week long persistent SLAM experiment, in which a Pioneer robot performed mock deliveries in a busy office environment. We used the biologically inspired visual SLAM system, RatSLAM, combined with a hybrid control architecture that selected between exploring the environment, performing deliveries, and recharging. The robot performed more than a thousand successful deliveries with only one failure (from which it recovered), travelled more than 40 km over 37 hours of active operation, and recharged autonomously 23 times. We discuss several issues arising from the success (and limitations) of this experiment and two subsequent avenues of work.

Intercontinental haptic teleoperation of a flying vehicle : a step towards real-time applications

This paper describes the theory and practice for a stable haptic teleoperation of a flying vehicle. It extends passivity-based control framework for haptic teleoperation of aerial vehicles in the longest intercontinental setting that presents great challenges. The practicality of the control architecture has been shown in maneuvering and obstacle-avoidance tasks over the internet with the presence of significant time-varying delays and packet losses. Experimental results are presented for teleoperation of a slave quadrotor in Australia from a master station in the Netherlands. The results show that the remote operator is able to safely maneuver the flying vehicle through a structure using haptic feedback of the state of the slave and the perceived obstacles.

Robust Observer Design with Application to Fault Detection

A new scheme for robust estimation of the partial state of linear time-invariant multivariable systems is presented, and it is shown how this may be used for the detection of sensor faults in such systems. We consider an observer to be robust if it generates a faithful estimate of the plant state in the face of modelling uncertainty or plant perturbations. Using the Stable Factorization approach we formulate the problem of optimal robust observer design by minimizing an appropriate norm on the estimation error. A logical candidate is the 2-norm, corresponding to an H�¿ optimization problem, for which solutions are readily available. In the special case of a stable plant, the optimal fault diagnosis scheme reduces to an internal model control architecture.

Advances towards behaviour-based indoor robotic exploration

215 p.

Flight dynamics in Drosophila through a dynamically-scaled robotic approach

Flies are particularly adept at balancing the competing demands of delay tolerance, performance, and robustness during flight, which invites thoughtful examination of their multimodal feedback architecture. This dissertation examines stabilization requirements for inner-loop feedback strategies in the flapping flight of Drosophila, the fruit fly, against the backdrop of sensorimotor transformations present in the animal. Flies have evolved multiple specializations to reduce sensorimotor latency, but sensory delay during flight is still significant on the timescale of body dynamics. I explored the effect of sensor delay on flight stability and performance for yaw turns using a dynamically-scaled robot equipped with a real-time feedback system that performed active turns in response to measured yaw torque. The results show a fundamental tradeoff between sensor delay and permissible feedback gain, and suggest that fast mechanosensory feedback provides a source of active damping that compliments that contributed by passive effects. Presented in the context of these findings, a control architecture whereby a haltere-mediated inner-loop proportional controller provides damping for slower visually-mediated feedback is consistent with tethered-flight measurements, free-flight observations, and engineering design principles. Additionally, I investigated how flies adjust stroke features to regulate and stabilize level forward flight. The results suggest that few changes to hovering kinematics are actually required to meet steady-state lift and thrust requirements at different flight speeds, and the primary driver of equilibrium velocity is the aerodynamic pitch moment. This finding is consistent with prior hypotheses and observations regarding the relationship between body pitch and flight speed in fruit flies. The results also show that the dynamics may be stabilized with additional pitch damping, but the magnitude of required damping increases with flight speed. I posit that differences in stroke deviation between the upstroke and downstroke might play a critical role in this stabilization. Fast mechanosensory feedback of the pitch rate could enable active damping, which would inherently exhibit gain scheduling with flight speed if pitch torque is regulated by adjusting stroke deviation. Such a control scheme would provide an elegant solution for flight stabilization across a wide range of flight speeds.

AI in locomotion: Challenges and perspectives of underactuated robots

This article discusses the issues of adaptive autonomous navigation as a challenge of artificial intelligence. We argue that, in order to enhance the dexterity and adaptivity in robot navigation, we need to take into account the decentralized mechanisms which exploit physical system-environment interactions. In this paper, by introducing a few underactuated locomotion systems, we explain (1) how mechanical body structures are related to motor control in locomotion behavior, (2) how a simple computational control process can generate complex locomotion behavior, and (3) how a motor control architecture can exploit the body dynamics through a learning process. Based on the case studies, we discuss the challenges and perspectives toward a new framework of adaptive robot control. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2007.

Bipedal walking and running with compliant legs

Passive dynamics plays an important role in legged locomotion of the biological systems. The use of passive dynamics provides a number of advantages in legged locomotion such as energy efficiency, self-stabilization against disturbances, and generating gait patterns and behavioral diversity. Inspired from the theoretical and experimental studies in biomechanics, this paper presents a novel bipedal locomotion model for walking and running behavior which uses compliant legs. This model consists of three-segment legs, two servomotors, and four passive joints that are constrained by eight tension springs. The self-organization of two gait patterns (walking and running) is demonstrated in simulation and in a real-world robot. The analysis of joint kinematics and ground reaction force explains how a minimalistic control architecture can exploit the particular leg design for generating different gait patterns. Moreover, it is shown how the proposed model can be extended for controlling locomotion velocity and gait patterns with the simplest control architecture. © 2007 IEEE.

Compact Reconfigurable Binary-Decision-Diagram Logic Circuit on a GaAs Nanowire Network

We describe a reconfigurable binary-decision-diagram logic circuit based on Shannon's expansion of Boolean logic function and its graphical representation on a semiconductor nanowire network. The circuit is reconfigured by using programmable switches that electrically connect and disconnect a small number of branches. This circuit has a compact structure with a small number of devices compared with the conventional look-up table architecture. A variable Boolean logic circuit was fabricated on an etched GaAs nanowire network having hexagonal topology with Schottky wrap gates and SiN-based programmable switches, and its correct logic operation together with dynamic reconfiguration was demonstrated.