Molecular characterization of BjussuSP-I, a new thrombin-like enzyme with procoagulant and kallikrein-like activity isolated from Bothrops jararacussu snake venom

A thrombin-like enzyme, named BjussuSP-I, isolated from Bothrops jararacussu snake venom, is an acidic single-chain glycoprotein with M-r = 61,000, pI similar to 3.8 and 6% sugar. BjussuSP-I shows high proteolytic activity upon synthetic substrates, such as S-2238 and S-2288. It also shows procoagulant and kallikrein-like activity, but is unable to act on platelets and plasmin. These activities are inhibited by specific inhibitors of this class of enzymes. The complete cDNA sequence of BjussuSP-I with 696 bp encodes open reading frames of 232 amino acid residues, which conserve the common domains of thrombin-like serine proteases. BjussuSP-I shows a high structural homology with other thrombin-like enzymes from snake venoms where common amino acid residues are identified as those corresponding to the catalytic site and subsites S1, S2 and S3 already reported. In this study, we also demonstrated the importance of N-linked glycans, to improve thrombin-like activity of BjussuSP-I toxin. (c) 2007 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

A transcript finishing initiative for closing gaps in the human transcriptome

We report the results of a transcript finishing initiative, undertaken for the purpose of identifying and characterizing novel human transcripts, in which RT-PCR was used to bridge gaps between paired EST Clusters, mapped against the genomic sequence. Each pair of EST Clusters selected for experimental validation was designated a transcript finishing unit (TFU). A total of 489 TFUs were selected for validation, and an overall efficiency of 43.1% was achieved. We generated a total of 59,975 bp of transcribed sequences organized into 432 exons, contributing to the definition of the structure of 211 human transcripts. The structure of several transcripts reported here was confirmed during the course of this project, through the generation of their corresponding full-length cDNA sequences. Nevertheless, for 21% of the validated TFUs, a full-length cDNA sequence is not yet available in public databases, and the structure of 69.2% of these TFUs was not correctly predicted by computer programs. The TF strategy provides a significant contribution to the definition of the complete catalog of human genes and transcripts, because it appears to be particularly useful for identification of low abundance transcripts expressed in a restricted Set of tissues as well as for the delineation of gene boundaries and alternatively spliced isoforms.

A proteína quinase dependente de ciclina NcPHO85 de Neurospora crassa. Estudos de caracterização molecular e bioquímica

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Isolamento, caracterização e expressão em sistema bacteriano de um gene que codifica uma proteína transportadora de lipídeos de Piper nigrum

A pimenteira-do-reino (Piper nigrum L.) constitui uma das espécies de pimenta mais amplamente utilizadas no mundo, pertencendo à família Piperaceae, a qual compreende cerca de 1400 espécies distribuídas principalmente no continente americano e sudeste da Ásia, onde esta cultura originou. A pimenteira-do-reino foi introduzida no Brasil no século XVII, e tornou-se uma cultura de importância econômica desde 1933. O Estado do Pará é o principal produto brasileiro de pimenta-do-reino, contudo sua produção vem sendo afetada pela doença fusariose causada pelo fungo Fusarium solani f. sp. piperis. Estudos prévios revelaram a identificação de sequencias de cDNA diferencialmente expressas durante a interação da pimenteira-do-reino com o F. solani f. sp. piperis. Entre elas, uma sequencia de cDNA parcial que codifica para uma proteína transportadora de lipídeos (LTP), a qual é conhecida por seu importante papel na defesa de plantas contra patógenos e insetos. Desta forma, o objetivo principal deste trabalho foi isolar e caracterizar as sequencias de cDNA e genômica de uma LTP de pimenteira-do-reino, denominada PnLTP. O cDNA completo da PnLTP isolado por meio de experimentos de RACE apresentou 621 bp com 32 pb and 235 bp nas regiões não traduzidas 5‘ e 3‘, respectivamente. Este cDNA contem uma ORF de 354 bp codificando uma proteína deduzida de 117 resíduos de aminoácidos que apresentou alta identidade com LTPs de outras espécies vegetais. Análises das sequencias revelou que a PnLTP contem um potencial peptídeo sinal na extremidade amino-terminal e oito resíduos de cisteína preditos por formar quatro pontes de dissulfeto, as quais poderiam contribuir para a estabilidade desta proteína. O alinhamento entre as sequencias de cDNA e genômica revelou a ausência de introns na região codificante do gene PnLTP, o que está de acordo ao encontrado em outros genes de LTPs de plantas. Por último, a PnLTP madura foi expressa em sistema bacteriano. Experimentos adicionais serão realizados com o objetivo de avaliar a habilidade da PnLTP recombinante em inibir o crescimento do F. solani f. sp. piperis.

Efficient RNAi-induced Protein Knockdown in Somatic Cells Using Diced or Chemically Produced Small Interfering RNAs (siRNA)

Background: RNA interference (RNAi) is a post-transcriptional gene silencing process in which double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) directs the degradation of a specific corresponding target mRNA. The mediators of this process are small dsRNAs of approximately 21 to 23 bp in length, called small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), which can be prepared in vitro and used to direct the degradation of specific mRNAs inside cells. Hence, siRNAs represent a powerful tool to study and control gene and cell function. Rapid progress has been made in the use of siRNA as a means to attenuate the expression of any protein for which the cDNA sequence is known. Individual siRNAs can be chemically synthesized, in vitro-transcribed, or expressed in cells from siRNA expression vectors. However, screening for the most efficient siRNAs for post-transcriptional gene silencing in cells in culture is a laborious and expensive process. In this study, the effectiveness of two siRNA production strategies for the attenuation of abundant proteins for DNA repair were compared in human cells: (a) the in vitro production of siRNA mixtures by the Dicer enzyme (Diced siRNAs); and (b) the chemical synthesis of very specific and unique siRNA sequences (Stealth RNai (TM)). Materials, Methods & Results: For in vitro-produced siRNAs, two segments of the human Ku70 (167 bp in exon 5; and 249 bp in exon 13; NM001469) and Xrcc4 (172 bp in exon 2; and 108 bp in exon 6; NM003401) genes were chosen to generate dsRNA for subsequent "Dicing" to create mixtures of siRNAs. The Diced fragments of siRNA for each gene sequence were pooled and stored at -80 degrees C. Alternatively, chemically synthesized Stealth siRNAs were designed and generated to match two very specific gene sequence regions for each target gene of interest (Ku70 and Xrcc4). HCT116 cells were plated at 30% confluence in 24- or 6-well culture plates. The next day, cells were transfected by lipofection with either Diced or Stealth siRNAs for Ku70 or Xrcc4, in duplicate, at various doses, with blank and sham transfections used as controls. Cells were harvested at 0, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h post-transfection for protein determination. The knockdown of specific targeted gene products was quantified by Western blot using GAPDH as control. Transfection of gene-specific siRNA to either Ku70 or Xrcc4 with both Diced and Stealth siRNAs resulted in a down regulation of the targeted proteins to approximately 10 to 20% of control levels 48 h after transfection, with recovery to pre-treatment levels by 96 h. Discussion: By transfecting cells with Diced or chemically synthesized Stealth siRNAs, Ku70 and Xrcc4, two highly expressed proteins in cells, were effectively attenuated, demonstrating the great potential for the use of both siRNA production strategies as tools to perform loss of function experiments in mammalian cells. In fact, down-regulation of Ku70 and Xrcc4 has been shown to reduce the activity of the non-homologous end joining DNA pathway, a very desirable approach for the use of homologous recombination technology for gene targeting or knockout studies. Stealth RNAi (TM) was developed to achieve high specificity and greater stability when compared with mixtures of enzymatically-produced (Diced) siRNA fragments. In this study, both siRNA approaches inhibited the expression of Ku70 and Xrcc4 gene products, with no detectable toxic effects to the cells in culture. However, similar knockdown effects using Diced siRNAs were only attained at concentrations 10-fold higher than with Stealth siRNAs. The application of RNAi technology will expand and continue to provide new insights into gene regulation and as potential applications for new therapies, transgenic animal production and basic research.

Biochemical, physicochemical and molecular characterization of a genuine 2-Cys-peroxiredoxin purified from cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walpers] leaves

Background: Peroxiredoxins have diverse functions in cellular defense-signaling pathways. 2-Cys-peroxiredoxins (2-Cys-Prx) reduce H2O2 and alkyl-hydroperoxide. This study describes the purification and characterization of a genuine 2-Cys-Prx from Vigna unguiculata (Vu-2-Cys-Prx). Methods: Vu-2-Cys-Prx was purified from leaves by ammonium sulfate fractionation, chitin affinity and ion exchange chromatography. Results: Vu-2-Cys-Prx reduces H2O2 using NADPH and DTT. Vu-2-Cys-Prx is a 44 kDa (SDS-PAGE)/46 kDa (exclusion chromatography) protein that appears as a 22 kDa molecule under reducing conditions, indicating that it is a homodimer linked intermolecularly by disulfide bonds and has a pI range of 4.56-4.72; its NH2-terminal sequence was similar to 2-Cys-Prx from Phaseolus vulgaris (96%) and Populus tricocarpa (96%). Analysis by ESI-Q-TOF MS/MS showed a molecular mass/pI of 28.622 kDa/5.18. Vu-2-Cys-Prx has 8% alpha-helix, 39% beta-sheet, 22% of turns and 31% of unordered forms. Vu-2-Cys-Prx was heat stable, has optimal activity at pH 7.0, and prevented plasmid DNA degradation. Atomic force microscopy shows that Vu-2-Cys-Prx oligomerized in decamers which might be associated with its molecular chaperone activity that prevented denaturation of insulin and citrate synthase. Its cDNA analysis showed that the redox-active Cys(52) residue and the amino acids Pro(45), Thr(49) and Arg(128) are conserved as in other 2-Cys-Prx. General significance: The biochemical and molecular features of Vu-2-Cys-Prx are similar to other members of 2-Cys-Prx family. To date, only one publication reported on the purification of native 2-Cys-Prx from leaves and the subsequent analysis by N-terminal Edman sequencing, which is crucial for construction of stromal recombinant 2-Cys-Prx proteins. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

PepT1 mRNA expression levels in sea bream (Sparus aurata) fed different plant protein sources

[EN] The expression and regulation of intestinal oligopeptide transporter (PepT)-1 when vegetable sources are used as a substitute for fish meal in the diet of marine fish has not yet been explored. In the present study, as part of our ongoing work on elucidating PepT1 gene expression in relation to different dietary treatments, we have now isolated and deposited in Genbank database (accession no. GU733710) a cDNA sequence representing the PepT1 in the sea bream (Sparus aurata). The ?de novo? prediction of the three-dimensional structure of PepT1 protein is presented. We also analyzed diet-induced changes in the expression of PepT1 mRNA via real-time RT-PCR using the standard curve method. Sea bream were fed for 140 days with one of the following four diet formulations (43% protein/21% lipid): a control fast growth-promoting diet (C), and three diets with the same formulation but in which 15% of the fish meal was substituted by protein concentrates either from lupine (LPC), chick pea (CPC), or green pea (PPC). Fish fed PPC had significantly (p < 0.05) lower levels of PepT1 transcripts in the proximal intestine than the controls, whereas PepT1 transcript levels in fish fed LPC or CPC were not significantly different from the controls. Although growth was similar between fish fed with different diets during the first 72 days of feeding, growth of the fish fed with PPC was reduced during the second part of the trial and was significantly (p < 0.05) lower than fish fed LPC and CPC diets by the end of the experiment. Correlation between these results and fish growth performances highlights that the intestinal PepT1 mRNA level may serve as a useful marker of the dietary protein quality and absorption efficiency.

Recombinant expression of molluscan hemocyanin (KLH) substructures in a prokaryotic system: E. coli

The recombinant expression of 19 different substructures of KLH in the prokaryotic sys-tem E. coli has been successfully achieved: each one of the eight single FUs a to h of both isoforms, KLH1 and KLH2, two substructures consisting of two consecutive FUs (KLH1-bc and KLH1-gh) as well as a cDNA encompassing KLH1-abc. All recombinant proteins, fused to an N-terminal 6xHis tag, have successfully been detected by immuno precipitation using monoclonal α-His-antibodies and polyclonal α-KLH1- and α-KLH2-antibodies. One exception remained: SP-KLH2-a, which was not detected by the α-His-antibodies. This allows speculations as to whether the coexpressed signal peptide can lead, at one hand, to the secretion of the recombinant protein, and on the other to the simultaneous cut-off of the leader peptide, which results in the splitting off of even more N-terminal 6xHis tag, leading to failed recognition by the appropriate antibodies. The comparison of native KLH with recombinantly expressed prokaryotic (E. coli) and eukaryotic (Sf9 insect cells) KLH was done using FU-1h. The weak detection by the polyclonal α-KLH1-antibodies of both recombinantly expressed proteins showed that the native protein was the best recognized. For the prokaryotic one, both the denaturation applied for solubilisation of the bacterial inclusion bodies and the inability of bacterial cells to add N-linked glycosylation, are the reason for the poor hybridization. In contrast, KLH1-h expressed in eukaryotic insect cells is likely to be glycosylated. The incubation with the α-KLH1-antibodies resulting in the same weak detection, however, revealed that the linked carbohydrate side chains are not those expected. The establishment of SOE-PCR, together with further improvement, has enabled the generation of a clone encompassing the complete subunit KLH1-abcdefgh. The se-quence analysis compared to the original KLH1 sequence showed, however, that the resulting recombinant protein is defective in two histidines, required for the copper bind-ing sites in FU-1b and FU-1d and in three disulfide bridges (FU-1a, FU-1b and FU 1g). This is due to polymerase-related nucleotide exchanges, resulting in a changed amino acid sequence. Nevertheless, all eight potential N-glycosylation sites are present, leading to the speculation that the recombinant protein can in theory be fully glycosylated, which is the most important aspect for the clinical applicability of recombinant KLH as an im-munotherapeutic agent. The improvement of this method elaborated during the present work indicates bright prospects for the future generation of a correct cDNA sequence encoding for the complete KLH2 subunit.

Molecular characterization of the porcine deleted in malignant brain tumors 1 gene (DMBT1)

The human gene deleted in malignant brain tumors 1 (DMBT1) is considered to play a role in tumorigenesis and pathogen defense. It encodes a protein with multiple scavenger receptor cysteine-rich (SRCR) domains, which are involved in recognition and binding of a broad spectrum of bacterial pathogens. The SRCR domains are encoded by highly homologous repetitive exons, whose number in humans may vary from 8 to 13 due to genetic polymorphism. Here, we characterized the porcine DMBT1 gene on the mRNA and genomic level. We assembled a 4.5 kb porcine DMBT1 cDNA sequence from RT-PCR amplified seminal vesicle RNA. The porcine DMBT1 cDNA contains an open reading frame of 4050 nt. The transcript gives rise to a putative polypeptide of 1349 amino acids with a calculated mass of 147.9 kDa. Compared to human DMBT1, it contains only four N-terminal SRCR domains. Northern blotting revealed transcripts of approximately 4.7 kb in size in the tissues analyzed. Analysis of ESTs suggested the existence of secreted and transmembrane variants. The porcine DMBT1 gene spans about 54 kb on chromosome 14q28-q29. In contrast to the characterized cDNA, the genomic BAC clone only contained 3 exons coding for N-terminal SRCR domains. In different mammalian DMBT1 orthologs large interspecific differences in the number of SRCR exons and utilization of the transmembrane exon exist. Our data suggest that the porcine DMBT1 gene may share with the human DMBT1 gene additional intraspecific variations in the number of SRCR-coding exons.

Analysis of differential gene expression in nontumorigenic glioblastoma multiforme

Loss of chromosome 10 represents the most common cytogenetic abnormality in high grade gliomas (glioblastoma multiforme). To identify genes involved in the malignant progression of human gliomas, a subtractive hybridization was performed between a tumorigenic glioblastoma cell line (LG11) and a nontumorgenic hybrid cell (LG11.3) containing an introduced chromosome 10. LG11 mRNA was subtracted from LG11.3 cDNA to produce cDNA probes enriched for sequences whose expression differs quantitatively from the parental tumorigenic cells. Both known and novel sequences were identified as a result of the subtraction. Northern blot analysis was then used to confirm differential expression of several subtracted clones. One novel clone, clone 17, identified a 2.6 kb message that showed a consistent two to four fold increase in expression in the LG11.3 nontumorigenic cells. Clone 17 (340 bp) was used successfully to screen for a near full-length version, RIG (regulated in glioma), which was 2,569 bp in size. The RIG cDNA sequence showed homology to clone 17 and to an anonymous EST (IB666), but to no previously identified genes. This screening effort also identified several independent clones representing novel sequences, most of which failed to show increased expression in the nontumorigenic GBM cells. Tissue distribution studies of RIG indicated highest levels of expression in human brain with appreciably lower levels in heart and lung. In vitro transcription and translation experiments demonstrated the ability of RIG to direct the synthesis of a 13 kD protein product. However, open reading frame analysis revealed no identify with previously described motifs or any known proteins. Using a combination of somatic cell hybrid panels and in situ hybridization, the RIG gene was mapped to chromosome 11p14-11p15. Further study of RIG and related gene products may provide insight into the negative regulation of glial oncogenesis. ^

Involvement of heparin-like glycosaminoglycans and expression of a novel heparan sulfate binding protein (p24) during human placentation and in a model for human implantation

Previous studies in our laboratory have indicated that heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) play an important role in murine embryo implantation. To investigate the potential function of HSPGs in human implantation, two human cell lines (RL95 and JAR) were selected to model uterine epithelium and embryonal trophectoderm, respectively. A heterologous cell-cell adhesion assay showed that initial binding between JAR and RL95 cells is mediated by cell surface glycosaminoglycans (GAG) with heparin-like properties, i.e., heparan sulfate and dermatan sulfate. Furthermore, a single class of highly specific, protease-sensitive heparin/heparan sulfate binding sites exist on the surface of RL95 cells. Three heparin binding, tryptic peptide fragments were isolated from RL95 cell surfaces and their amino termini partially sequenced. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) generated 1 to 4 PCR products per tryptic peptide. Northern blot analysis of RNA from RL95 cells using one of these RT-PCR products identified a 1.2 Kb mRNA species (p24). The amino acid sequence predicted from the cDNA sequence contains a putative heparin-binding domain. A synthetic peptide representing this putative heparin binding domain was used to generate a rabbit polyclonal antibody (anti-p24). Indirect immunofluorescence studies on RL95 and JAR cells as well as binding studies of anti-p24 to intact RL95 cells demonstrate that p24 is distributed on the cell surface. Western blots of RL95 membrane preparations identify a 24 kDa protein (p24) highly enriched in the 100,000 g pellet plasma membrane-enriched fraction. p24 eluted from membranes with 0.8 M NaCl, but not 0.6 M NaCl, suggesting that it is a peripheral membrane component. Solubilized p24 binds heparin by heparin affinity chromatography and $\sp{125}$I-heparin binding assays. Furthermore, indirect immunofluorescence studies indicate that cytotrophoblast of floating and attached villi of the human fetal-maternal interface are recognized by anti-p24. The study also indicates that the HSPG, perlecan, accumulates where chorionic villi are attached to uterine stroma and where p24-expressing cytotrophoblast penetrate the stroma. Collectively, these data indicate that p24 is a cell surface membrane-associated heparin/heparan sulfate binding protein found in cytotrophoblast, but not many other cell types of the fetal-maternal interface. Furthermore, p24 colocalizes with HSPGs in regions of cytotrophoblast invasion. These observations are consistent with a role for HSPGs and HSPG binding proteins in human trophoblast-uterine cell interactions. ^

GENE EXPRESSION IN CHRONIC MYELOGENOUS LEUKEMIA

The goal of the present work was to identify and characterize gene sequences that are preferentially expressed in CML in an effort to better understand the molecular basis of the disease. As high abundance mRNAs generally encode proteins that are phenotypically characteristic of cells, positive-negative screening of a CML cDNA library was used to identify cDNA clones containing sequences preferentially transcribed in CML. One cDNA sequence that fulfilled this criterion, C-A3, has been characterized in some detail. It represents a small mRNA ((TURN)496 nucleotides) that is highly abundant ((TURN)2% of the poly(A('+))RNA) in cells from the chronic phase of CML. In situ hybridization to whole cells indicates the principal leukocytes that express C-A3 sequences are eosinophils, basophils and immature myelocytes. Surprisingly, CML patients with high numbers of myeloblasts do not have an abundance of C-A3 transcripts, although transcript levels remain elevated in patients with lymphoblasts. In AML, high transcript levels are only found sporadically and occasionally different sized transcripts can be detected. Sequences from the 3' end of the C-A3 message are present in 2-5 copies per haploid genome. The 3' end of C-A3 localizes to bands 8q21.1 and 8q23 by in situ chromosomal hybridization. This is a region that is often involved in hematopoietic malignancies. Restriction digests of human genomic DNA show a correlation between the presence of a 2.3 kb Hind III fragment and certain types of leukemia. All of the leukemic DNAs tested had this fragment. In comparison, only one of five normal DNAs had a band this size. Analysis of the nucleotide sequence indicates that C-A3 probably encodes a small, hydrophobic peptide which may be part of a larger protein. ^

STUDIES INTO THE MOLECULAR MECHANISMS REGULATING MUSCULAR ATROPHY RESULTING FROM HINDLIMB IMMOBILIZATION IN THE RAT (PROTEIN, SYNTHESIS, RNA)

The purpose of the work performed in this dissertation was to examine some of the possible regulatory mechanisms involved in the initiation of muscular atrophy during periods of decreased muscle utilization resulting from hindlimb immobilization in the rat. A 37% decrease in the rate of total muscle protein synthesis which has been observed to occur in the first 6 h of immobilization contributes significantly to the observed loss of protein during immobilization.^ The rates of cytochrome c and actin synthesis were determined in adult rat red vastus lateralis and gastrocnemius muscles, respectively, by the constant infusion and incorporation of ('3)H-tyrosine into protein. The fractional synthesis rates of both actin and cytochrome c were significantly decreased (P < 0.05) in the 6th h of hindlimb immobilization.^ RHA was extracted from adult rat gastrocnemius muscle by modification of the phenol: chloroform: SDS extraction procedures commonly used for preparation of RNA for hybridization analysis from other mammalian tissues. RNA content of rat gastrocnemius muscle, as determined by this method of extraction and its subsequent quantification by UV absorbance and orcinol assay, was significantly greater than the RNA content previously determined for adult rat gastrocnemius by other commonly employed methods.^ RNA extracted by this method from gastrocnemius muscles of control and 6h immobilized rats was subjected to "dot blot" hybridization to ('32)P-labelled probe from plasmid p749, containing a cDNA sequence complementary to (alpha)-actin mRNA and from rat skeletal muscle. (alpha)-Actin specific mRNA content as estimated by this procedure is not significantly decreased in rat gastrocnemius following 6h or hindlimb immobilization. However, (alpha)-actin specific mRNA content is significantly decreased (P < 0.05) in adult rat gastrocnemius (alpha)-actin specific mRNA is not decreased in adult rat gastrocnemius muscle following 6h of immobilization, a time when actin synthesis is significantly decreased, it is concluded that a change in (alpha)-actin specific mRNA content is not the initiating event responsible for the early decrease in actin synthesis observed in the 6th h of immobilization. ^

Cloning and characterization of human protease-activated receptor 4

Protease-activated receptors 1–3 (PAR1, PAR2, and PAR3) are members of a unique G protein-coupled receptor family. They are characterized by a tethered peptide ligand at the extracellular amino terminus that is generated by minor proteolysis. A partial cDNA sequence of a fourth member of this family (PAR4) was identified in an expressed sequence tag database, and the full-length cDNA clone has been isolated from a lymphoma Daudi cell cDNA library. The ORF codes for a seven transmembrane domain protein of 385 amino acids with 33% amino acid sequence identity with PAR1, PAR2, and PAR3. A putative protease cleavage site (Arg-47/Gly-48) was identified within the extracellular amino terminus. COS cells transiently transfected with PAR4 resulted in the formation of intracellular inositol triphosphate when treated with either thrombin or trypsin. A PAR4 mutant in which the Arg-47 was replaced with Ala did not respond to thrombin or trypsin. A hexapeptide (GYPGQV) representing the newly exposed tethered ligand from the amino terminus of PAR4 after proteolysis by thrombin activated COS cells transfected with either wild-type or the mutant PAR4. Northern blot showed that PAR4 mRNA was expressed in a number of human tissues, with high levels being present in lung, pancreas, thyroid, testis, and small intestine. By fluorescence in situ hybridization, the human PAR4 gene was mapped to chromosome 19p12.

Cloning and characterization of a plastidal and a mitochondrial isoform of tobacco protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase

Protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase is the last enzyme in the common pathway of heme and chlorophyll synthesis and provides precursor for the mitochondrial and plastidic heme synthesis and the predominant chlorophyll synthesis in plastids. We cloned two different, full-length tobacco cDNA sequences by complementation of the protoporphyrin-IX-accumulating Escherichia coli hemG mutant from heme auxotrophy. The two sequences show similarity to the recently published Arabidopsis PPOX, Bacillus subtilis hemY, and to mammalian sequences encoding protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase. One cDNA sequence encodes a 548-amino acid residues protein with a putative transit sequence of 50 amino acid residues, and the second cDNA encodes a protein of 504 amino acid residues. Both deduced protein sequences share 27.2% identical amino acid residues. The first in vitro translated protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase could be translocated to plastids, and the approximately 53-kDa mature protein was detected in stroma and membrane fraction. The second enzyme was targeted to mitochondria without any detectable reduction in size. Localization of both enzymes in subcellular fractions was immunologically confirmed. Steady-state RNA analysis indicates an almost synchronous expression of both genes during tobacco plant development, greening of young seedlings, and diurnal and circadian growth. The mature plastidal and the mitochondrial isoenzyme were overexpressed in E. coli. Bacterial extracts containing the recombinant mitochondrial enzyme exhibit high protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase activity relative to control strains, whereas the plastidal enzyme could only be expressed as an inactive peptide. The data presented confirm a compartmentalized pathway of tetrapyrrole synthesis with protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase in plastids and mitochondria.