Difterentially expressed genes of Tetrahymena thermophila in response to tributyltin (TBT) identified by suppression subtractive hybridization and real time quantitative PCR

Tributyltin (TBT) is widely used as antifouling paints, agriculture biocides, and plastic stabilizers around the world, resulting in great pollution problem in aquatic environments. However, it has been short of the biomonitor to detect TBT in freshwater. We constructed the suppression subtractive hybridization library of Tetrahymena thermophila exposed to TBT, and screened out 101 Expressed Sequence Tags whose expressions were significantly up- or down-regulated with TBT treatment. From this, a series of genes related to the TBT toxicity were discovered, such as glutathione-S-transferase gene (down-regulated), plasma membrane Ca2+ ATPase isoforms 3 gene (up-regulated) and NgoA (up-regulated). Furthermore, their expressions under different concentrations of TBT treatment (0.5-40 ppb) were detected by real time fluorescent quantitative PCR. The differentially expressed genes of T thermophila in response to TBT were identified, which provide the basic to make Tetrahymena as a sensitive, rapid and convenient TBT biomonitor in freshwater based on rDNA inducible expression system. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Syntheses and crystal structures of four new organotin complexes with Schiff bases containing triazole

Four new organotin complexes, namely [(Bu2Sn)(2)O(EtO)(L1)](2) (1), [(Bu2Sn)(2)O(EtO)(L2)](2) (2), [(Bu2Sn)(2)O(EtO)(L-3)](2) (3) and [Ph3Sn(L4)]center dot 0.5H(2)O (4), were obtained by reactions of Bu2SnO and Ph3SnOH with 4-phenylideneamino-3-methyl-1,2,4-triazole-5-thione (HL1), 4-furfuralideneamino-3-methyl-1,2,4-triazole-5-thione (HL2), 4-(2-thienylideneamino)-3-ethyl-1,2,4-triazole-5-thione (HL3) and 4-(3,5-di-t-butylsalicylideneamino)-3-ethyl-1,2,4-triazole-5-thione (HL4). Compounds 1-4 were characterized by elemental analysis, IR spectra and their structures were determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction methods. Complexes 1-3 show similar structures containing a Sn4O4 ladder skeleton in which each of the exo tin atoms is bonded to the N atom of a corresponding thione-form deprotonated ligand. Complex 4 shows a mononuclear structure in which the tin atom of triphenyltin group is coordinated by the S atom of a thiol-form L4(-) anion.

Microbial inactivation of Pseudomonas putida and Pichia pastoris using gene silencing.

Antisense deoxyoligonucleotide (ASO) gene silencing was investigated as a potential disinfection tool for industrial and drinking water treatment application. ASOs bind with their reverse complementary mRNA transcripts thereby blocking protein translation. While ASO silencing has mainly been studied in medicine, it may be useful for modulating gene expression and inactivating microorganisms in environmental applications. In this proof of concept work, gene targets were sh ble (zeocin resistance) and todE (catechol-2,3-dioxygenase) in Pichia pastoris and npt (kanamycin resistance) in Pseudomonas putida. A maximum 0.5-fold decrease in P. pastoris cell numbers was obtained following a 120 min incubation with single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) concentrations ranging from 0.2 to 200 nM as compared to the no ssDNA control. In P. putida, a maximum 5.2-fold decrease was obtained after 90 min with 400 nM ssDNA. While the silencing efficiencies varied for the 25 targets tested, these results suggest that protein activity as well as microbial growth can be altered using ASO gene silencing-based tools. If successful, this technology has the potential to eliminate some of the environmental and health issues associated with the use of strong chemical biocides. However, prior to its dissemination, more research is needed to increase silencing efficiency and develop effective delivery methods.

DIESE Final Report

The DIESE program (Determination of relevant Indicators for Environmental monitoring: A Strategy for Europe) brought together seven French and British research teams, a private company and the agencies responsible for the management of water bodies of the two countries (ONEMA and the Environmental Agency) in a joint effort to document the ecotoxicological effects related to the presence of chemicals in the environment. To contribute to a better understanding and management of the environment, the program has expanded its efforts to (1) use existing knowledge, or new information acquired during the research program, to identify important biological problems affecting wildlife, (2) increase our understanding of toxicological mechanisms involved and thus be able to identify the causes of the identified dysfunctions and (3) to hone our expertise and vigilance systems in order to better monitor changes in the environment and make appropriate diagnoses. The first part of the program identified clear biological effects, and using biological tests representative of the mechanisms of action of compounds, identified the responsible compounds present in the environment. In connection with the feminization observed in many fish species in European streams, a search for estrogenic and anti-androgenic compounds was conducted. A new test identifying estrogenic compounds has been developed in roach and the ER-Calux test for anti-androgenic effects has been implemented. The results showed that, in addition to biocides such as triclosan and chlorophène, many aromatic hydrocarbon compounds are likely to disturb the physiology of living organisms by interacting with the androgen receptor. Six of these were identified in sediment extracts: benzanthrone, fluoranthene, 1,2- benzodiphenylene sulfide, benzo[a]pyrene, benz[a] anthracene, and 9-phenylcarbazole. The second part of the program aimed at documenting and understanding the mechanisms of action of chemicals leading to physiological changes. This work represents a particular challenge when dealing with molluscs, as knowledge about their physiology and endocrinology is still fragmentary. Thus, new technologies including metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses have been implemented in order to obtain a comprehensive picture of the effects on molluscs. Metabolomic research demonstrated that estrogenic compounds are able to alter the metabolism of eicosanoids and amines, while transcriptomic strategies identified genes whose expression is altered in intersex clams. Because these genes mainly appear as “male” genes, the results suggest that these profound physiological changes result from demasculinisation of male clams. Proteomic studies have also been carried out to elucidate the mechanisms of action of pollutants on fish physiology. These studies generally included a set of molecular marker measurements in an integrative and ecological perspective. The results showed that not only male fish physiology is altered but also female reproductive status is impaired. Moreover, it appeared that other alterations of the fish endocrine system, such as androgenic effects, are at work and that the immune system is also subject to chemical pressure including effects from environmental estrogens. Notably, the immune system, like the endocrine system, seems to show periods of particular sensitivity during development. Measurements on growth and on the general metabolism emphasize the importance of environmental conditions in the physiology of aquatic organisms and in particular the inter-site variability due to temperature,hypoxic conditions, and fish development strategies. They thus provide a unique perspective that allow us to better understand the context and consequences of natural conditions on the population. In a third part of the program, the research conducted had the objective of developing and testing a biomarker strategy to support the environmental management methodologies. Two lanes of specific studies have been followed. The first was to implement, over all or part of the study area, robust biomarkers to establish maps that highlight the water bodies at risk and provide information on sources of compounds and associated disturbances. The second part of the work aimed at exploring methodologies to take advantage of biomarker measurements and to integrate them in a very simple and clear index. Partial or comprehensive maps of the Channel area were produced to report the presence of mutagenic or anti-androgenic compounds in the sediments, intersex fish and clams, and imposex. These maps may remain to be completed and work will be necessary to confront this information in order to learn relevant lessons for management of the environment, a goal that the DIESE program has contributed to by providing some necessary and original information.

Biocide testing against microbes

This chapter describes methods for testing biocides against microbes. The first part describes a method using flow cytometry to test biocides against multispecies communities of planktonic microbial assemblage and Part 2 describes methods to test biocides against both single and multispecies biofilms.

The major facilitator superfamily transporter MdtM contributes to intrinsic resistance of Escherichia coli to quaternary ammonium compounds

OBJECTIVES:
Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are used extensively as biocides and their misuse may be contributing to the development of bacterial resistance. Although the major intrinsic resistance to QACs of Gram-negative bacteria is mediated by the action of tripartite multidrug transporters of the resistance-nodulation-division family, we aimed to test if the promiscuity of the recently characterized major facilitator superfamily multidrug transporter, MdtM, from Escherichia coli enabled it also to function in the efflux of QACs.
METHODS:
The ability of the major facilitator mdtM gene product, when overexpressed from multicopy plasmid, to protect E. coli cells from the toxic effects of a panel of seven QACs was determined using growth inhibition assays in liquid medium. Interaction between QACs and MdtM was studied by a combination of substrate binding assays using purified protein in detergent solution and transport assays using inverted vesicles.
RESULTS:
E. coli cells that overproduced MdtM were less susceptible to the cytotoxic effects of each of the QACs tested compared with cells that did not overproduce the transporter. Purified MdtM bound each QAC with micromolar affinity and the protein utilized the electrochemical proton gradient to transport QACs across the cytoplasmic membrane. Furthermore, the results suggested a functional interaction between MdtM and the tripartite resistance-nodulation-division family AcrAB-TolC efflux system.
CONCLUSIONS:
The results support a hitherto unidentified capacity for a single-component multidrug transporter of the major facilitator superfamily, MdtM, to function in the efflux of a broad range of QACs and thus contribute to the intrinsic resistance of E. coli to these compounds.

Development of a biocidal treatment regime to inhibit biological growths on cultural heritage: BIODAM

Existing chemical treatments to prevent biological damage to monuments often involve considerable amounts of potentially dangerous and even poisonous biocides. The scientific approach described in this paper aims at a drastic reduction in the concentration of biocide applications by a polyphasic approach of biocides combined with cell permeabilisers, polysaccharide and pigment inhibitors and a photodynamic treatment. A variety of potential agents were screened to determine the most effective combination. Promising compounds were tested under laboratory conditions with cultures of rock deteriorating bacteria, algae, cyanobacteria and fungi. A subsequent field trial involved two sandstone types with natural biofilms. These were treated with multiple combinations of chemicals and exposed to three different climatic conditions. Although treatments proved successful in the laboratory, field trials were inconclusive and further testing will be required to determine the most effective treatment regime. While the most effective combination of chemicals and their application methodology is still being optimised, results to date indicate that this is a promising and effective treatment for the control of a wide variety of potentially damaging organisms colonising stone substrates

Control of biofilm growth through photodynamic treatments combined with chemical inhibitors: in vitro evaluation methods

The rock/atmosphere interface is inhabited by a complex microbial community including bacteria, algae and fungi. These communities are prominent biodeterioration agents and remarkably influence the status of stone monuments and buildings. Deeper comprehension of natural biodeterioration processes on stone surfaces has brought about a concept of complex microbial communities referred to as "subaerial biofilms". The practical implications of biofilm formation are that control strategies must be devised both for testing the susceptibility of the organisms within the biofilm and treating the established biofilm. Model multi-species biofilms associated with mineral surfaces that are frequently refractory to conventional treatment have been used as test targets. A combination of scanning microscopy with image analysis was applied along with traditional cultivation methods and fluorescent activity stains. Such a polyphasic approach allowed a comprehensive quantitative evaluation of the biofilm status and development. Effective treatment strategies incorporating chemical and physical agents have been demonstrated to prevent biofilm growth in vitro. Model biofilm growth on inorganic support was significantly reduced by a combination of PDT and biocides

Photo-dynamic biocidal action of methylene blue and hydrogen peroxide on the cyanobacterium Synechococcus leopoliensis under visible light irradiation

Biofilm growth on stone surfaces is a significant contributing factor to stone biodeterioration. Current market based biocides are hazardous to the environment and to public health. We have investigated the photo-dynamic effect of methylene blue (MB) in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) on the destruction of the cyanobacterium Synechococcus leopoliensis (S. leopoliensis) under irradiation with visible light. Data presented in this paper illustrate that illumination of S. leopoliensis in the presence of a photosensitiser (MB) and H₂O₂ results in the decomposition of both the cyanobacterium and the photosensitiser. The presence of MB and H₂O₂ affects the viability of the photosensitiser and the cyanobacterium with the fluorescence of both decreasing by 80% over the irradiation time investigated. The photo-dynamic effect was observed under aerobic and anaerobic conditions indicating that oxygen was not necessary for the process. This novel combination could be effective for the remediation of biofilm colonised stone surfaces

Photosensitized destruction of Chlorella vulgaris by methylene blue or nuclear fast red combined with hydrogen peroxide under visible light irradiation

A considerable number of investigations have started to elucidate the essential roles biological agents play in the biodeterioration of stone. Chemical biocides are becoming increasingly banned because of the environmental and health hazards associated with these toxic substances. The present study reports the photodynamic effect of Methylene Blue (MB) and Nuclear Fast Red (NFR) in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) on the destruction of the algae Chlorella vulgaris (C. vulgaris) under irradiation with visible light. Illumination of C. vulgaris in the presence of MB or NFR combined with H₂O₂ results in the decomposition of both the algal species and the photosensitizer. The photodynamic effect was investigated under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Differences in mechanism type are reported and are dependent on both the presence and the absence of oxygen. The behavior of each photosensitizer leads to a Type II mechanism and a Type I/Type II combination for MB and NFR, respectively, being concluded. This novel combination could be effective for the remediation of biofilm-colonized stone surfaces.

The antimicrobial potential of ionic liquids: A source of chemical diversity for infection and biofilm control

Although described almost a century ago, interest in ionic liquids has flourished in the last two decades, with significant advances in the understanding of their chemical, physical and biological property sets driving their widespread application across multiple and diverse research areas. Significant progress has been made through the contributions of numerous research groups detailing novel libraries of ionic liquids, often ‘task-specific’ designer solvents for application in areas as diverse as separation technology, catalysis and bioremediation. Basic antimicrobial screening has often been included as a surrogate indication of the environmental impact of these compounds widely regarded as ‘green’ solvents. Obviating the biological properties, specifically toxicity, of these compounds has obstructed their potential application as sophisticated designer biocides. A recent tangent in ionic liquids research now aims to harness tuneable biological properties of these compounds in the design of novel potent antimicrobials, recognising their unparalleled flexibility for chemical diversity in a severely depleted antimicrobial arsenal. This review concentrates primarily on the antimicrobial potential of ionic liquids and aims to consolidate contemporary microbiological background information, assessment protocols and future considerations necessary to advance the field in light of the urgent need for antimicrobial innovation.

Determinant factors for the use of imposex in TBT pollution monitoring

Os compostos de tributilestanho (TBT) foram utilizados como biocidas em tintas antivegetativas (AV) e amplamente aplicados, durante décadas, de forma a evitar a bioincrustação em superfícies submersas, principalmente em cascos de embarcações. Os seus efeitos deletérios em organismos não-alvo tornaram-se evidentes após o aparecimento de gastrópodes prosobrâquios com imposex – sobreposição de caracteres sexuais masculinos sobre o tracto reprodutivo das fêmeas. Desde então, a expressão do imposex em prosobrânquios tem sido amplamente utilizada como biomarcador da poluição por TBT. Um dos objectivos da presente tese é avaliar se as mais recentes restrições legais na utilização das tintas AV com compostos organoestânicos (OTs) resultaram numa redução da poluição pelos mesmos na costa continental Portuguesa. Para tal, foi levada a cabo a análise da variação temporal do imposex como biomarcador dos níveis ambientais de TBT e a validação de procedimentos, de modo a seguir de forma precisa a evolução da intensidade deste fenómeno ao longo do tempo. O trabalho de investigação teve início no momento em que a ineficácia da legislação anterior (Directiva 89/677/CEE) na redução da poluição por TBT no litoral Português era reportada na literatura e quando estavam já agendados instrumentos decisivos para a diminuição definitiva deste tipo de poluição: o Regulamento (CE) N.º 782/2003 do Parlamento e do Conselho da União Europeia (UE) que bania as tintas AV baseadas em TBT na sua frota a partir de 1 de Julho de 2003; a "Convenção Internacional sobre o Controlo de Sistemas Antivegetativos Nocivos em Navios” (Convenção AFS), adoptada em 2001 pela Organização Marítima Internacional (OMI), que procurava erradicar os OTs da frota mundial até 2008. Os níveis de imposex e as concentrações de OTs nos tecidos de fêmeas de Nucella lapillus foram medidos em 17 locais de amostragem ao longo da costa Portuguesa em 2003, a fim de se avaliarem os impactos do TBT nas populações desta espécie e de se criar uma base de dados para seguir a sua evolução futura. O índice da sequência do vaso deferente (VDSI), o índice do tamanho relativo do pénis (RPSI) e a percentagem de fêmeas afectadas por imposex (%I) foram utilizados na medição da intensidade deste fenómeno em cada local de amostragem e os seus valores variaram entre 0,20-4,04, 0,0- 42,2% e 16,7-100,0%, respectivamente. Foram encontradas fêmeas estéreis em 3 locais de amostragem, com percentagens a variar entre 4,0 e 6,2%. As concentrações de TBT e dibutilestanho (DBT) nas fêmeas variaram respectivamente entre 23-138 e <10-62 ng Sn.g-1 de peso seco, e o conteúdo em TBT nos tecidos revelou-se significativamente correlacionado com o imposex (nomeadamente com o RPSI e o VDSI). Os níveis de expressão do fenómeno e o conteúdo em OTs nos tecidos, foram superiores na proximidade de portos, confirmando as conclusões obtidas anteriormente por outros autores de que os navios e a actividade dos estaleiros são as principais fontes destes compostos no litoral Português. As infra-estruturas associadas ás principais fontes de OTs – portos, estaleiros e marinas – estão geralmente localizadas no interior de estuários, motivo pelo qual estas áreas têm vindo a ser descritas como as mais afectadas por estes poluentes. Por esta razão, foi levado a cabo o estudo pormenorizado da poluição por TBT na Ria de Aveiro, como caso de estudo representativo da poluição por estes compostos num sistema estuarino em Portugal continental. N. lapillus foi usada como bioindicador para avaliar a tendência temporal da poluição por TBT nesta área entre 1997 e 2007. Foi registada uma diminuição da intensidade do imposex após 2003, embora as melhorias mais evidentes tenham sido observadas entre 2005 e 2007, provavelmente devido à implementação do Regulamento (CE) N.º 782/2003 que proibiu a aplicação de tintas AV com TBT em navios com a bandeira da UE. Apesar desses progressos, as análises ao conteúdo em OTs nos tecidos de fêmeas de N. lapillus e em amostras de água colhidas em 2006 indicaram contaminação recente por TBT na área de estudo, evidenciando assim a permanência de fontes de poluição. A utilização de N. lapillus como bioindicador da poluição por TBT na Ria de Aveiro apresenta algumas limitações uma vez que a espécie não ocorre nas áreas mais interiores da Ria e não vive em contacto com sedimentos. Assim, a informação obtida a partir da sua utilização como bioindicador é fundamentalmente relativa aos níveis de TBT na coluna de água. Foi então necessário recorrer a um bioindicador complementar – Hydrobia ulvae – para melhor avaliar a evolução temporal da poluição por TBT no interior deste sistema estuarino e estudar a persistência de TBT nos sedimentos. Não foi registada uma diminuição dos níveis de imposex em H. ulvae na Ria de Aveiro entre 1998 e 2007, apesar da aplicação do Regulamento (CE) N.º 782/2003. Pelo contrário, houve um aumento global significativo da percentagem de fêmeas afectadas por imposex e um ligeiro aumento do VDSI, contrastando com o que tem sido descrito para outros bioindicadores na Ria de Aveiro no mesmo período. Estes resultados mostram que a diferente biologia/ecologia das espécies indicadoras determina vias distintas de acumulação de TBT, apontando a importância da escolha do bioindicador dependendo do compartimento a ser monitorizado (sedimento versus água). A ingestão de sedimento como hábito alimentar em H. ulvae foi discutida como sendo a razão para a escolha da espécie como indicadora da contaminação dos sedimentos por TBT. Foram também estudados os métodos mais fiáveis para reduzir a influência de variáveis críticas na medição dos níveis de imposex em H. ulvae. As comparações de parâmetros do imposex baseados em medições do pénis devem ser sempre realizadas sob condições de narcotização bem standardizadas uma vez que este procedimento provoca um aumento significativo do comprimento do pénis (PL) em ambos os sexos. O VDSI, a % e o PL em ambos os sexos revelaram ser fortemente influenciados pelo tamanho dos espécimes: a utilização de fêmeas mais pequenas conduz à subestimação do VDSI, da %I e do PL, enquanto que diferenças no tamanho dos machos provocam variações no índice do comprimento relativo do pénis (RPLI), independentemente dos níveis de poluição por TBT. Existe, portanto, a necessidade de controlar algumas variáveis envolvidas na análise do imposex que mostraram afectar a fiabilidade dos resultados. Uma vez que N. lapillus é o principal bioindicador dos efeitos biológicos específicos do TBT para a área da OSPAR, foi também estudada a influência de algumas variáveis na avaliação dos níveis de imposex nesta espécie, especificamente as relacionadas com o ciclo reprodutor e o tamanho dos espécimes. O estudo do ciclo reprodutor e a variação sazonal/espacial do comprimento do pénis do macho (MPL) incidiu num único local no litoral Português (Areão – região de Aveiro) de forma a avaliar se o RPSI varia sazonal e espacialmente na mesma estação de amostragem e se tais variações influenciam os resultados obtidos em programas de monitorização do imposex. Nos meses de Dezembro de 2005 a Junho de 2007, foram encontrados espécimes de N. lapillus sexualmente maturos e potencialmente aptos para a reprodução. Contudo, foi também evidente um padrão sazonal do ciclo reprodutor – o estado de desenvolvimento da gametogénese nas fêmeas variou sazonalmente e ocorreu uma diminuição do volume da glândula da cápsula e do factor de condição no final do Verão / início do Outono. Contrariamente, a gametogénese nos machos não apresentou variação sazonal significativa, embora os valores mais baixos do factor de condição, do comprimento do pénis e dos volumes de esperma e da próstata tenham também sido registados no final do Verão / início do Outono. Além disso, o MPL mostrou variar, no mesmo local de amostragem, inversamente com a distância aos ninhos de cápsulas ovígeras; um aumento dos valores do MPL foi também observado em espécimes de maior tamanho. Todas estas variações no MPL introduzem desvios nos resultados da avaliação do imposex quando é usado o RPSI. A magnitude do erro envolvido foi quantificada e revelou-se superior em locais com níveis mais elevados de poluição por TBT. Apesar do RPSI ser um índice que fornece informação importante sobre os níveis de poluição por TBT, a sua interpretação deve ser cuidadosa e realizada complementarmente com os outros índices, destacando-se o VDSI como índice mais fiável e com significado biológico mais expressivo. Novas campanhas de monitorização do imposex em N. lapillus foram realizadas ao longo da costa Portuguesa em 2006 e 2008, e os resultados subsequentemente comparados com a base de dados criada em 2003,de forma a avaliar a evolução da poluição por TBT no litoral Português naquele período. Nestes estudos foram aplicados novos procedimentos na monitorização e tratamento dos dados, de forma a minimizar a variação nos índices de avaliação do imposex induzida pelos factores acima descritos, para seguir com maior consistência a tendência da poluição por TBT entre 2003 e 2008. Foi observado um declínio global significativo na intensidade de imposex na área de estudo durante o referido período e a qualidade ecológica da costa Portuguesa, segundo os termos definidos pela Comissão OSPAR, revelou melhorias notáveis após 2003 confirmando a eficácia do Regulamento (CE) N.º 782/2003. Não obstante, as populações de N. lapillus revelaram-se ainda amplamente afectadas por imposex, tendo sido detectadas emissões de TBT na água do mar ao longo da costa em 2006, apesar da restrição anteriormente referida. Estes inputs foram atribuídos principalmente aos navios que à data ainda circulavam com tintas AV com TBT aplicadas antes de 2003, uma vez que a sua utilização nas embarcações foi apenas proibida em 2008. Considerando que o Regulamento (CE) N.º 782/2003 constitui uma antecipação da proibição global da OMI que entrou em vigor em Setembro de 2008, prevê-se, por analogia, que haja uma rápida diminuição da poluição por TBT à escala mundial num futuro próximo. Na sequência desta previsão, é apresentada uma discussão teórica preliminar relativamente ás possíveis estratégias usadas por N. lapillus na recolonização de locais onde, no passado, as populações terão aparentemente sido extintas devido a níveis extremamente elevados de TBT. Estes locais são tipicamente zonas abrigadas junto de infra-estruturas portuárias, cuja recolonização por esta espécie será provavelmente muito lenta dada a mobilidade reduzida dos adultos e o ciclo de vida não apresentar fase larvar pelágica. Foram então equacionadas duas hipotéticas vias de recolonização de zonas abrigadas por espécimes provenientes de populações de costa aberta/exposta: a migração de adultos e/ou a dispersão de juvenis. No entanto, em ambos os casos, estaria implicada a transposição de um problema amplamente descrito na bibliografia: as populações de N. lapillus de costa aberta podem apresentar um fenótipo muito diferente das de zonas abrigadas, podendo inclusivamente variar no número de cromossomas. A recolonização pode portanto não ter sucesso pelo simples facto dos novos recrutas não estarem bem adaptados aos locais a recolonizar. Para analisar este problema, foram estudados tanto a forma da concha de espécimes de N. lapillus ao longo da costa Portuguesa como o respectivo número de cromossomas. Embora a forma da concha tenha revelado diferenças, de acordo com o grau de hidrodinamismo entre as populações de N. lapillus avaliadas, o cariótipo 2n = 26, típico de zonas expostas, foi registado em todos os locais amostrados. Por outro lado, foi também testada em laboratório a possível mortalidade de juvenis em dispersão no interior menos salino dos estuários. Foi então verificada a ocorrência de mortalidade elevada de juvenis expostos a salinidades baixas (=100% após 1 hora a salinidades ≤9 psu), o que também pode comprometer a recolonização de zonas estuarinas menos salinas por esta via. Mesmo assim, os juvenis mostraram um comportamento de flutuação à superfície da água em condições laboratoriais, que pode ser considerado um benefício específico na colonização de áreas mais internas dos estuários, se tal facto vier a ser confirmado em estudos de campo. As conclusões deste estudo contribuem certamente para a descrição do final da “história do TBT” dado que, uma vez controlados alguns factores determinantes no uso do imposex como biomarcador, a avaliação do declínio da poluição por estes compostos, agora esperado à escala global, se torna mais rigorosa.

Micro/nanoreservoirs for controlled release of active species in smart functional coatings

This work reports one possible way to develop new functional coatings used to increase the life time of metallic structures. The functionalities selected and attributed to model coatings in the frame of this work were corrosion protection, self-sensing and prevention of fouling (antifouling). The way used to confer those functionalities to coatings was based on the encapsulation of active compounds (corrosion inhibitors, pH indicators and biocides) in micro and nanocontainers followed by their incorporation into the coating matrices. To confer active corrosion protection, one corrosion inhibitor (2-mercaptobenzothiazole, MBT) was encapsulated in two different containers, firstly in silica nanocapsules (SiNC) and in polyurea microcapsules (PU-MC). The incorporation of both containers in different models coatings shows a significant improvement in the corrosion protection of aluminum alloy 2024 (AA2024). Following the same approach, SiNC and PU-MC were also used for the encapsulation of phenolphthalein (one well known pH indicator) to introduce sensing properties in polymeric coatings. SiNC and PU-MC containing phenolphthalein acted as corrosion sensor, showing a pink coloration due to the beginning of cathodic reaction, resulting in a pH increase identified by those capsules. Their sensing performance was proved in suspension and when integrated in coatings for aluminium alloy 2024 and magnesium alloy AZ31. In a similar way, the biocide activity (antifouling) was assigned to two polymeric matrices using SiNC for encapsulation of one biocide (Dichloro-2-octyl-2H-isothiazol-3-one, DCOIT) and also SiNC-MBT was tested as biocide. The antifouling activity of those two encapsulated compounds was assessed through inhibition and consequent decrease in the bioluminescence of modified E. coli. That effect was verified in suspension and when incorporated in coatings for AISI 1008 carbon steel. The developed micro and nanocontainers presented the desired performance, allowing the introduction of new functionalities to model coatings, showing potential to be used as functional additives in the next generation of multifunctional coatings.

Biological colonization on majolica glazed tiles: biodeterioration, bioreceptivity and mitigation strategies

The impact of microbial activity on the deterioration of cultural heritage is a well-recognized global problem. Glazed wall tiles constitute an important part of the worldwide cultural heritage. When exposed outdoors, biological colonization and consequently biodeterioration may occur. Few studies have dealt with this issue, as shown in the literature review on biodiversity, biodeterioration and bioreceptivity of architectural ceramic materials. Due to the lack of knowledge on the biodeteriogens affecting these assets, the characterization of microbial communities growing on Portuguese majolica glazed tiles, from Pena National Palace (Sintra, Portugal) and another from Casa da Pesca (Oeiras, Portugal) was carried out by culture and molecular biology techniques. Microbial communities were composed of microalgae, cyanobacteria, bacteria and fungi, including a new fungal species (Devriesia imbrexigena) described for the first time. Laboratory-based colonization experiments were performed to assess the biodeterioration patterns and bioreceptivity of glazed wall tiles produced in laboratory. Microorganisms previously identified on glazed tiles were inoculated on pristine and artificially aged tile models and incubated under laboratory conditions for 12 months. Phototrophic microorganisms were able to grow into glaze fissures and the tested fungus was able to form oxalates over the glaze. The bioreceptivity of artificially aged tiles was higher for phototrophic microorganisms than pristine tile models. A preliminary approach on mitigation strategies based on in situ application of commercial biocides and titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles on glazed tiles demonstrated that commercial biocides did not provide long term protection. In contrast, TiO2 treatment caused biofilm detachment. In addition, the use of TiO2 thin films on glazed wall tiles as a protective coating to prevent biological colonization was analysed under laboratorial conditions. Finally, conservation notes on tiles exposed to biological colonization were presented.