Adaption of horses to a novel dynamic feeding system : movement and behavioural responses

Reasons for performing study: Many domestic horses and ponies are sedentary and obese due to confinement to small paddocks and stables and a diet of infrequent, high-energy rations. Severe health consequences can be associated with this altered lifestyle. Objectives: The aims of this study were to investigate the ability of horses to learn to use a dynamic feeder system and determine the movement and behavioural responses of horses to the novel system. Methods: A dynamic feed station was developed to encourage horses to exercise in order to access ad libitum hay. Five pairs of horses (n = 10) were studied using a randomised crossover design with each pair studied in a control paddock containing a standard hay feeder and an experimental paddock containing the novel hay feeder. Horse movement was monitored by a global positioning system (GPS) and horses observed and their ability to learn to use the system and the behavioural responses to its use assessed. Results: With initial human intervention all horses used the novel feeder within 1 h. Some aggressive behaviour was observed between horses not well matched in dominance behaviour. The median distance walked by the horses was less (P = 0.002) during a 4 h period (117 [57–185] m) in the control paddock than in the experimental paddock (630 [509–719] m). Conclusions: The use of an automated feeding system promotes increased activity levels in horses housed in small paddocks, compared with a stationary feeder.

Outcomes of an early feeding practices intervention to prevent childhood obesity

Objective Use a randomised controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate outcomes of a universal intervention to promote protective feeding practices, which commenced in infancy and aimed to prevent childhood obesity Subjects and Methods The NOURISH RCT enrolled 698 first-time mothers (mean age 30.1 years, SD=5.3) with healthy term infants (51% female) aged 4.3 (SD=1.0) months at baseline. Mothers were randomly allocated to self-directed access to usual care or to attend two 6-session interactive group education modules that provided anticipatory guidance on early feeding practices. Outcomes were assessed six months after completion of the second information module, 20 months from baseline and when the children were two years old. Maternal feeding practices were self-reported using validated questionnaires and study-developed items. Study-measured child height and weight were used to calculate BMI Z-score. Results Retention at follow-up was 78%. Mothers in the intervention group reported using responsive feeding more frequently on 6/9 subscales and 8/8 items (Ps ≤.03) and overall less ‘controlling feeding practices’ (P<.001). They also more frequently used feeding practices (3/4 items; Ps <.01) likely to enhance food acceptance. No statistically significant differences were noted in anthropometric outcomes (BMI Z-score: P=.11), nor in prevalence of overweight/obesity (control 17.9% vs. intervention 13.8%, P=.23). Conclusions Evaluation of NOURISH at child age two years found that anticipatory guidance on complementary feeding, tailored to developmental stage, increased use by first-time mothers of 'protective' feeding practices that potentially support the development of healthy eating and growth patterns in young children.

Feeding attitudes, practices and traditional dietary beliefs of Chinese mothers with young children in Australia : a mixed methods study

Background and Objectives Obesity and some dietary related diseases are emerging health problems among Chinese immigrants and their children in developed countries. These health problems are closely linked to eating habits, which are established in the early years of life. Young children’s eating habits are likely to persist into later childhood and youth. Family environment and parental feeding practices have a strong effect on young children’s eating habits. Little information is available on the early feeding practices of Chinese mothers in Australia. The aim of this study was to understand the dietary beliefs, feeding attitudes and practices of Chinese mothers with young children who were recent immigrants to Australia. Methods Using a sequential explanatory design, this mixed methods study consisted of two distinct phases. Phase 1 (quantitative): 254 Chinese immigrant mothers of children aged 12 to 59 months completed a cross-sectional survey. The psychometric properties and factor structure of a Chinese version of the Child Feeding Questionnaire (CFQ, by Birch et al. 2001) were assessed and used to measure specific maternal feeding attitudes and controlling feeding practices. Other questions were developed from the literature and used to explore maternal traditional dietary beliefs and feeding practices related to their beliefs, perceptions of picky eating in children and a range of socioeconomic and acculturation factors. Phase 2 (qualitative): 21 mothers took part in a follow-up telephone interview to assist in explaining and interpreting some significant findings obtained in the first phase. Results Chinese mothers held strong traditional dietary beliefs and fed their children according to these beliefs. However, children’s consumption of non-core foods was high. Both traditional Chinese and Australian style foods were consumed by their children. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that the original 7-factor model of the CFQ provided an acceptable fit to the data with minor modification. However, an alternative model with eight constructs in which two items related to using food rewards were separated from the original restriction construct, not only provided an acceptable fit to the data, but also improved the conceptual clarity of the constructs. The latter model included 24 items loading onto the following eight constructs: restriction, pressure to eat, monitoring, use of food rewards, perceived responsibility, perception of own weight, perception of child’s weight, and concern about child becoming overweight. The internal consistency of the constructs was acceptable or desirable (Cronbach’s α = .60 - .93). Mothers reported low levels of concern about their child overeating or becoming overweight, but high levels of controlling feeding practices: restriction, monitoring, pressure to eat and use of food rewards. More than one quarter of mothers misinterpreted their child’s weight status (based on mothers’ self-reported data). In addition, mothers’ controlling feeding practices independently predicted half of the variance and explained 16% of the variance in child weight status: pressuring the child to eat was negatively associated with child weight status (β = -0.30, p < .01) and using food rewards was positively associated with child weight status (β = 0.20, p < .05) after adjusting for maternal and child covariates. Monitoring and restriction were not associated with child weight status. Mothers’ perceptions of their child’s weight were positively associated with child weight status (β = 0.33, p < .01). Moreover, mothers reported that they mostly decided what (65%) and how much (80%) food their child ate. Mothers who decided what food their child ate were more likely to monitor (β = -0.17, p < .05) and restrict (β = -0.17, p < .05) their child’s food consumption. Mothers who let their child decide how much food their child ate were less likely to pressure their child to eat (β = -0.38, p < .01) and use food rewards (β = -0.24, p < .01). Mothers’ perceptions of picky eating behaviour were positively associated with their use of pressure (β = 0.21, p < .01) and negatively associated with monitoring (β = -0.16, p < .05) and perceptions of their child’s weight status (β = -0.13, p < .05). Qualitative data showed that pressuring to eat, monitoring and restriction of the child’s food consumption were common practices among these mothers. However, mothers stated that their motivation for monitoring and restricting was to ensure the child’s general health. Mothers’ understandings of picky eating behaviour in their children were consistent with the literature and they reported multiple feeding strategies to deal with it. Conclusion Chinese immigrant mothers demonstrated strong traditional dietary beliefs, a low level of concern for child weight, misperceptions of child weight status, and a high overall level of control in child feeding in this study. The Chinese version of the CFQ, which consists of eight constructs and distinguishes between the constructs using food rewards and restriction, is an appropriate instrument to assess feeding attitudes and controlling feeding practices among Chinese immigrant mothers of young children in Australia. Mothers’ feeding attitudes and practices were associated with children’s weight status and mothers’ perceptions of picky eating behaviour in children after adjusting for a range of socio-demographic maternal and child characteristics. Monitoring and restriction of children’s food consumption according to food selection may be positive feeding practices, whereas pressuring to eat and using food rewards appeared to be negative feeding practices in this study. In addition, the results suggest that these young children have high exposure to energy-dense, nutrient-poor food. There is a need to develop and implement nutrition interventions to improve maternal feeding practices and the dietary quality among children of Chinese immigrant mothers in Australia.

Mothers' perceptions of introducing solids to their infant at six months of age : identifying critical belief-based targets to promote adherence to current infant feeding guidelines

We investigated critical belief-based targets for promoting the introduction of solid foods to infants at six months. First-time mothers (N = 375) completed a Theory of Planned Behaviour belief-based questionnaire and follow-up questionnaire assessing the age the infant was first introduced to solids. Normative beliefs about partner/spouse (β = 0.16) and doctor (β = 0.22), and control beliefs about commercial baby foods available for infants before six months (β = −0.20), predicted introduction of solids at six months. Intervention programs should target these critical beliefs to promote mothers’ adherence to current infant feeding guidelines to introduce solids at around six months.

Diurnal rhythm and effects of feeding, exercise and recombinant equine growth hormone on serum insulin concentrations in the horse

Reasons for performing the study As growth hormone increases lean body mass, it could be a therapy for obese horses. However, growth hormone use induces hyperinsulinaemia in some species, so further investigation is warranted. Objectives To investigate the effects of feeding, exercise and growth hormone therapy on basal insulin concentrations in healthy horses. Study design In vivo experimental study. Methods Blood samples were obtained every 30 min from 12 geldings over 24 h, to establish basal serum insulin concentrations, before they underwent a 3-week exercise programme. Horses were allocated into 2 groups and exercised for another 4 weeks. Group A received daily i.m. injections of recombinant equine growth hormone; 5 mg/day for 5 days, then 12.5 mg/day for 16 days. Blood samples were taken daily before feeding. Insulin vs. time area under curve of Groups A and B were compared using a Student's unpaired t test. Results Horses demonstrated insulin peaks within 2 h of feeding of 577 ± 108.3 pmol/l at 09.30 h and 342.4 ± 75.7 pmol/l at 17.30 h, despite receiving the same meal. The nadir was between midnight and 07.30 h. Exercise had no effect on basal insulin concentrations prior to equine growth hormone administrations. The equine growth hormone injections increased serum insulin concentrations (P = 0.01) within Group A, from 44.4 ± 15.3 pmol/l initially to 320.9 ± 238.2 pmol/l by Day 12. Exogenous growth hormone caused variable hyperinsulinaemia, which was alleviated once equine growth hormone administration ceased. Conclusions Single serum samples taken prior to the morning meal provide basal insulin concentrations. Exercise did not change basal insulin concentrations. However, equine growth hormone injections increased basal insulin concentrations, which were not ameliorated by exercise. Potential relevance This therapy is not recommended to address obesity in insulin-resistant equids.

The role of fathers in child feeding : perceived responsibility and predictors of participation

Background The role of fathers in shaping their child’s eating behaviour and weight status through their involvement in child feeding has rarely been studied. This study aims to describe the fathers’ perceived responsibility for child feeding, and to identify predictors of how frequently fathers eat meals with their child. Methods Four hundred and thirty-six Australian fathers (M age=37 years, SD=6 years; 34% university educated) of a 2-5 year old child (M age=3.5 years, SD=0.9 years; 53% boys) were recruited via contact with mothers enrolled in existing research projects or a University staff and student email list. Data were collected from fathers via a self-report questionnaire. Descriptive and hierarchical linear regression analyses were conducted. Results The majority of fathers reported that the family often/mostly ate meals together (79%). Many fathers perceived that they were responsible at least half of the time for feeding their child in terms of organizing meals (42%); amount offered (50%) and deciding if their child eats the ‘right kind of foods’ (60%). Time spent in paid employment was inversely associated with how frequently fathers ate meals with their child (β=-0.23, p<0.001); however, both higher perceived responsibility for child feeding (β=-0.16, p<0.004) and a more involved and positive attitude toward their role as a father (β=0.20, p<0.001) were positively related to how often they ate meals with their child, adjusting for a range of paternal and child covariates, including time spent in paid employment. Conclusions Fathers from a broad range of educational backgrounds appear willing to participate in research studies on child feeding. Most fathers were engaged and involved in family meals and child feeding. This suggests that fathers, like mothers, should be viewed as potential agents for the implementation of positive feeding practices within the family.

Dads at the dinner table a cross-sectional study of Australian fathers' child feeding perceptions and practices

Maternal perceptions and practices regarding child feeding have been extensively studied in the context of childhood overweight and obesity. To date, there is scant evidence on the role of fathers in child feeding. This cross-sectional study aimed to identify whether characteristics of fathers and their concerns about their children’s risk of overweight were associated with child feeding perceptions and practices. Questionnaires were used to collect data from 436 Australian fathers (mean age = 37 years, SD = 6) of a child (53% boys) aged between 2-5 years (M = 3.5 years, SD = 0.9). These data included a range of demographic variables and selected subscales from the Child Feeding Questionnaire on concern about child weight, perceived responsibility for child feeding and controlling practices (pressure to eat and restriction). Multivariable linear regression was used to examine associations between demographic variables and fathers’ feeding perceptions and practices. Results indicated that fathers’ who were more concerned about their child becoming overweight reported higher perceived responsibility for child feeding and were more controlling of what and how much their child eats. Greater time commitment to paid work, possessing a health care card (indicative of socioeconomic disadvantage) and younger child age were associated with fathers’ perceiving less responsibility for feeding. Factors such as paternal BMI and education level, as well as child gender were not associated with feeding perceptions or practices. This study contributes to the extant literature on fathers’ role in child feeding, revealing several implications for research and interventions in the child feeding field.

Association between maternal depressive symptoms in the early postnatal period and responsiveness in feeding at child age 2 years

Maternal depression is a known risk factor for poor outcomes for children. Pathways to these poor outcomes relate to reduced maternal responsiveness or sensitivity to the child. Impaired responsiveness potentially impacts the feeding relationship and thus may be a risk factor for inappropriate feeding practices. The aim of this study was to examine the longitudinal relationships between self-reported maternal post-natal depressive symptoms at child age 4 months and feeding practices at child age 2 years in a community sample. Participants were Australian first-time mothers allocated to the control group of the NOURISH randomized controlled trial when infants were 4 months old. Complete data from 211 mothers (of 346 allocated) followed up when their children were 2 years of age (51% girls) were available for analysis. The relationship between Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) score (child age 4 months) and child feeding practices (child age 2 years) was tested using hierarchical linear regression analysis adjusted for maternal and child characteristics. Higher EPDS score was associated with less responsive feeding practices at child age 2 years: greater pressure [β = 0.18, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.04–0.32, P = 0.01], restriction (β = 0.14, 95% CI: 0.001–0.28, P = 0.05), instrumental (β = 0.14, 95% CI: 0.005–0.27, P = 0.04) and emotional (β = 0.15, 95% CI: 0.01–0.29, P = 0.03) feeding practices (ΔR2 values: 0.02–0.03, P < 0.05). This study provides evidence for the proposed link between maternal post-natal depressive symptoms and lower responsiveness in child feeding. These findings suggest that the provision of support to mothers experiencing some levels of depressive symptomatology in the early post-natal period may improve responsiveness in the child feeding relationship.

Child eating behaviour outcomes of an early feeding intervention to reduce risk indicators for child obesity : the NOURISH RCT

Objective Describe parent-reported child eating behaviour and maternal parenting impact outcomes of an infant feeding intervention to reduce child obesity risk. Design and Methods An assessor masked Randomised Controlled Trial (RCT) with concealed allocation of individual mother-infant dyads. The NOURISH RCT enrolled 698 first-time mothers (mean age 30.1 years, SD=5.3) with healthy term infants (51% female) aged 4.3 months (SD=1.0) at baseline. Outcomes were assessed six months post-intervention when the children were 2-years old. Mothers reported on child eating behaviours using the Child Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (CEBQ), food preferences and dietary intake using a 24-hour telephone recall. Parenting was assessed using five scales validated for use in Australia. Results Intervention effects were evident on the CEBQ overall (MANOVA P=.002) and 4/8 subscales: child satiety responsiveness (P=.03), fussiness (P=.01), emotional overeating (P<.01), and food responsiveness (P=.06). Intervention children ‘liked’ more fruits (P<.01) and fewer non-core foods and beverages (Ps=.06, .03). The intervention mothers reported greater ‘autonomy encouragement’ (P=.002) Conclusions Anticipatory guidance on protective feeding practices appears to have modest positive impacts on child eating behaviours that are postulated to reduce future obesity risk.

An exploratory study of child-feeding practices of Indian mothers with children aged 1-5 years residing in Australia and Mumbai, India

This research has taken the first step to study child-feeding practices of Indian mothers in relation to childhood obesity. It compares feeding practices of Indian mothers with children aged 1-5 years living in Australia and Mumbai. Mothers in the Australian sample were more likely to use 'positive' feeding practices hypothesized to promote healthy growth and weight status. However, mothers in both samples commonly used coercive feeding practices that potentially increase the risk of childhood obesity. These results will inform interventions designed to promote healthy weight status in this cultural group.

Psychosocial factors associated with controlling feeding practices of Indian and Australian-Indian mothers

This cross-sectional study examined the association between psychosocial factors (mothers’ perception of own and child weight, maternal self-efficacy in feeding and involvement of the mother-in-law in child-feeding) and controlling feeding practices (monitoring, restriction, pressure to eat and passive feeding). Participants were 531 affluent-Indian mothers in Australia and Mumbai with children aged 1-5 years. The psychosocial variables and feeding practices were measured using a combination of previously validated scales and study-developed items/scales. Multivariable regression analyses were stratified by sample (Australia and Mumbai) to investigate psychosocial factors related to the feeding practices, adjusting for covariates. Self-efficacy in feeding was associated with each of the feeding practices in at least one of the samples (β values between 0.1-0.2, p= 0.04-0.005). The greater involvement of the mother-in-law in child-feeding was related to the higher use of restriction in both samples (β values ≥0.2, p=0.02). In contrast, maternal weight perceptions were not consistently associated with feeding practices in either sample. The findings highlighted that unique (self-efficacy in feeding) and culturally-specific (involvement of the mother-in-law) variables not extensively researched within the context of child-feeding were important factors associated with Indian mothers’ feeding practices. Greater consideration of these factors may be required when tailoring child-feeding interventions for Indian mothers.

Feeding beliefs and practices of Chinese immigrant mothers : validation of a modified version of the child feeding questionnaire

The Child Feeding Questionnaire (CFQ) developed by Birch and colleagues (2001) is a widely used tool for measuring parental feeding beliefs, attitudes and practices. However, the appropriateness of the CFQ for use with Chinese populations is unknown. This study tested the construct validity of a novel Chinese version of the CFQ using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Participants included a convenience sample of 254 Chinese-Australian mothers of children aged 1-4 years. Prior to testing, the questionnaire was translated into Chinese using a translation-back-translation method, one item was re-worded to be culturally appropriate, a new item was added (monitoring), and five items that were not age-appropriate for the sample were removed. Based on previous literature, both a 7-factor and an 8-factor model were assessed via CFA. Results showed that the 8-factor model, which separated restriction and use of food rewards, improved the conceptual clarity of the constructs and provided a good fit to the data. Internal consistency of all eight factors was acceptable (Cronbach’s α: .60−.93). This modified 8-factor CFQ appears to be a linguistically and culturally appropriate instrument for assessing feeding beliefs and practices in Chinese-Australian mothers of young children.

Maternal feeding self-efficacy and fruit and vegetable intakes in infants. Results from the SAIDI study

Adequate consumption of fruits and vegetables (FV) is a characteristic of a healthy diet but remains a challenge in nutrition interventions. This cross-sectional study explored the multi-directional relationships between maternal feeding self-efficacy, parenting confidence, child feeding behaviour, exposure to new food and FV intake in a cohort of 277 infants. Mothers with healthy infants weighing ≥2500 g and ≥37 weeks gestation were recruited post-natally from 11 South Australian hospitals. Socio-demographic datawere collected at recruitment. At 6 months postnatal, infantswereweighed and measured, andmothers completed a questionnaire exploring their perceptions of child feeding behaviour and child exposure to newfoods. The questionnaire also included the Short Temperament Scale for Infants, Kessler 10 to measure maternal psychological distress and 5 items measuring maternal feeding self-efficacy. The number of occasions and variety of FV (number of subgroups within food groups) consumed by infants were estimated from a 24-hour dietary recall and 2 days food record. Structural equation modellingwas performed using Mplus version 6.11. Median (IQR) variety scores were 2 (1–3) for fruit and 3 (2–5) for vegetable intake. The most popular FV consumed were apple (n = 108, 45.0%) and pumpkin (n = 143, 56.3%). None of the variables studied predicted the variety of child fruit intake. Parenting confidence, exposure to new foods and child feeding behaviourwere indirectly related to child vegetable intake through maternal feeding self-efficacy while total number of children negatively predicted child vegetable variety (p < 0.05). This highlights the need for addressing antecedents of maternal feeding self-efficacy and the family eating environment as key strategies towards development of healthy eating in children.

Confirmatory factor analysis of the baby eating behaviour questionnaire and associations with infant weight, gender and feeding mode in an Australian sample

The aim of this study was to evaluate the factor structure of the Baby Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (BEBQ) in an Australian community sample of mother-infant dyads. A secondary aim was to explore the relationship between the BEBQ subscales and infant gender, weight and current feeding mode. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) utilising structural equation modelling examined the hypothesised 4-factor model of the BEBQ. Only mothers (N=467) who completed all items on the BEBQ (infant age: M=17 weeks, SD=3 weeks) were included in the analysis. The original 4-factor model did not provide an acceptable fit to the data due to poor performance of the Satiety responsiveness factor. Removal of this factor (3 items) resulted in a well-fitting 3-factor model. Cronbach’s α was acceptable for the Enjoyment of food (α=0.73), Food responsiveness (α=0.78) and Slowness in eating (α=0.68) subscales but low for the Satiety responsiveness (α=0.56) subscale. Enjoyment of food was associated with higher infant weight whereas Slowness in eating and Satiety responsiveness were both associated with lower infant weight. Differences on all four subscales as a function of feeding mode were observed. This study is the first to use CFA to evaluate the hypothesised factor structure of the BEBQ. Findings support further development work on the Satiety responsiveness subscale in particular, but confirm the utility of the Enjoyment of food, Food responsiveness and Slowness in eating subscales.

The influence of maternal infant feeding practices and beliefs on the expression of food neophobia in toddlers

Food neophobia is a highly heritable trait characterized by the rejection of foods that are novel or unknown and potentially limits dietary variety, with lower intake and preference particularly for fruits and vegetables. Understanding non-genetic (environmental) factors that may influence the expression of food neophobia is essential to improving children’s consumption of fruits and vegetables and encouraging the adoption of healthier diets. The aim of this study was to examine whether maternal infant feeding beliefs (at four months) were associated with the expression of food neophobia in toddlers and whether controlling feeding practices mediated this relationship. Participants were 244 first-time mothers (M = 30.4, SD = 5.1 years) allocated to the control group of the NOURISH randomized controlled trial. The relationships between infant feeding beliefs (Infant Feeding Questionnaire) at four months and controlling child feeding practices (Child Feeding Questionnaire) and food neophobia (Child Food Neophobia Scale) at 24 months were tested using correlational and multiple linear regression models (adjusted for significant covariates). Higher maternal Concern about infant under-eating and becoming underweight at four months was associated with higher child food neophobia at two years. Similarly, lower Awareness of infant hunger and satiety cues was associated with higher child food neophobia. Both associations were significantly mediated by mothers’ use of Pressure to eat. Intervening early to promote positive feeding practices to mothers may help reduce the use of controlling practices as children develop. Further research that can further elucidate the bi-directional nature of the mother-child feeding relationship is still required.