The alpha-galactosyl derivatives of ganglioside GD(1b) are essential for the organization of lipid rafts in RBL-2H3 mast cells

Gangliosides are complex glycosphingolipids that are important in many biological processes. The present study investigated the role of gangliosides in the organization of lipid rafts in RBL-2H3 mast cells and in the modulation of mast cell degranulation via Fc epsilon RI. The role of gangliosides was examined using two ganglioside deficient cell lines (B6A4A2III-E5 and B6A4C1III-D1) as well as the parent cell line (RBL-2H3). All three cell lines examined express Fc epsilon RI, Lyn, Syk and LAT. However, only in RBL-2H3 cells were Fc epsilon RI, LAT and alpha-galactosyl derivatives of ganglioside GD(1b) mobilized to lipid raft domains following Fc epsilon RI stimulation. The inhibition of glycosphingolipid synthesis in RBL-2H3 cells also resulted in a decrease in the release of beta-hexosaminidase activity after Fc epsilon RI activation. The two mutant cell lines have a reduced release of beta-hexosaminidase activity after Fc epsilon RI stimulation, but not after exposure to calcium ionophore. These results indicate that the alpha-galactosyl derivatives of ganglioside GD(1b) are important in the initial events of Fc epsilon RI signaling upstream of Ca(2+) influx. Since the initial signaling events occur in lipid rafts and in the mutant cell lines the rafts are disorganized, these results also suggest that these gangliosides contribute to the correct assembly of lipid rafts and are essential for mast cell activation via Fc epsilon RI. (c) 2008 Published by Elsevier Inc.

Eosinophils in bronchial mucosa of asthmatics after allergen challenge: effect of anti-IgE treatment

Anti-IgE, omalizumab, inhibits the allergen response in patients with asthma. This has not been directly related to changes in inflammatory conditions. We hypothesized that anti-IgE exerts its effects by reducing airway inflammation. To that end, the effect of anti-IgE on allergen-induced inflammation in bronchial biopsies in 25 patients with asthma was investigated in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Allergen challenge followed by a bronchoscopy at 24 h was performed at baseline and after 12 weeks of treatment with anti-IgE or placebo. Provocative concentration that causes a 20% fall in forced expiratory volume in 1 s (PC(20)) methacholine and induced sputum was performed at baseline, 8 and 12 weeks of treatment. Changes in the early and late responses to allergen, PC(20), inflammatory cells in biopsies and sputum were assessed. Both the early and late asthmatic responses were suppressed to 15.3% and 4.7% following anti-IgE treatment as compared with placebo (P < 0.002). This was paralleled by a decrease in eosinophil counts in sputum (4-0.5%) and postallergen biopsies (15-2 cells/0.1 mm(2)) (P < 0.03). Furthermore, biopsy IgE+ cells were significantly reduced between both the groups, whereas high-affinity IgE receptor and CD4+ cells were decreased within the anti-IgE group. There were no significant differences for PC(20) methacholine. The response to inhaled allergen in asthma is diminished by anti-IgE, which in bronchial mucosa is paralleled by a reduction in eosinophils and a decline in IgE-bearing cells postallergen without changing PC(20) methacholine. This suggests that the benefits of anti-IgE in asthma may be explained by a decrease in eosinophilic inflammation and IgE-bearing cells.

Tyrosines in the Carboxyl Terminus Regulate Syk Kinase Activity and Function

The Syk tyrosine kinase family plays an essential role in immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) signaling. The binding of Syk to tyrosine-phosphorylated ITAM subunits of immunoreceptors, such as Fc epsilon RI on mast cells, results in a conformational change, with an increase of enzymatic activity of Syk. This conformational change exposes the COOH-terminal tail of Syk, which has three conserved Tyr residues (Tyr-623, Tyr-624, and Tyr-625 of rat Syk). To understand the role of these residues in signaling, wild-type and mutant Syk with these three Tyr mutated to Phe was expressed in Syk-deficient mast cells. There was decreased Fc epsilon RI-induced degranulation, nuclear factor for T cell activation and NF kappa B activation with the mutated Syk together with reduced phosphorylation of MAP kinases p38 and p42/44 ERK. In non-stimulated cells, the mutated Syk was more tyrosine phosphorylated predominantly as a result of autophosphorylation. In vitro, there was reduced binding of mutated Syk to phosphorylated ITAM due to this increased phosphorylation. This mutated Syk from non-stimulated cells had significantly reduced kinase activity toward an exogenous substrate, whereas its autophosphorylation capacity was not affected. However, the kinase activity and the autophosphorylation capacity of this mutated Syk were dramatically decreased when the protein was dephosphorylated before the in vitro kinase reaction. Furthermore, mutation of these tyrosines in the COOH-terminal region of Syk transforms it to an enzyme, similar to its homolog ZAP-70, which depends on other tyrosine kinases for optimal activation. In testing Syk mutated singly at each one of the tyrosines, Tyr-624 but especially Tyr-625 had the major role in these reactions. Therefore, these results indicate that these tyrosines in the tail region play a critical role in regulating the kinase activity and function of Syk.

GD1b-Derived Gangliosides Modulate Fc epsilon RI Endocytosis in Mast Cells

The role of the mast cell-specific gangliosides in the modulation of the endocytic pathway of Fc epsilon RI was investigated in RBL-2H3 cells and in the ganglioside-deficient cell lines, E5 and D1. MAb BC4, which binds to the alpha subunit of Fc epsilon RI, was used in the analysis of receptor internalization. After incubation with BC4-FITC for 30 min, endocytic vesicles in RBL-2H3 and E5 cells were dispersed in the cytoplasm. After 1 hr, the endocytic vesicles of the RBL-2H3 cells had fused and formed clusters, whereas in the E5 cells, the fusion was slower. In contrast, in D1 cells, the endocytic vesicles were smaller and remained close to the plasma membrane even after 3 hr of incubation. When incubated with BC4-FITC and subsequently imunolabeled for markers of various endocytic compartments, a defect in the endocytic pathway in the E5 and D1 cells became evident. In the D1 cells, this defect was observed at the initial steps of endocytosis. Therefore, the ganglioside derivatives from GD1b are important in the endocytosis of Fc epsilon RI in mast cells. Because gangliosides may play a role in mast cell-related disease processes, they provide an attractive target for drug therapy and diagnosis. (J Histochem Cytochem 59:428-440, 2011)

Basic fibroblast growth factor and fibroblast growth factor receptors in adult olfactory epithelium

Basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF2) stimulates proliferation of the globose basal cells, the neuron:ll precursor in the olfactory epithelium. The present study investigates the expression of basic fibroblast growth factor and fibroblast growth factor receptors in the adult olfactory epithelium. FGF2 immunoreactivity was expressed widely in the olfactory epithelium, with the highest density of immunoreactivity in the supporting cells. In contrast, most cells in the epithelium expressed FGF2 mRNA. Fibroblast growth factor receptor-1 (FGFr1) immunoreactivity was densest in the basal cell and neuronal layers of the olfactory epithelium and on the apical surface of supporting cells. In the lamina propria FGF2 immunoreactivity and mRNA were densest in cells close to the olfactory nerve bundles. FGFr1 immunoreactivity was heaviest on the olfactory ensheathing cells. Using reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction analysis, the olfactory epithelium was shown to express only three receptor splice variants, including one (FGFr1c) with which basic fibroblast growth factor has high affinity. Other receptor splice variants were present in the lamina propria. Taken together, these observations indicate endogenous sources of FGF? within the olfactory epithelium and lamina propria and suggest autocrine and paracrine pathways via which FGF2 might regulate olfactory neurogenesis. The observation of only three receptor splice variants in the olfactory epithelium limits the members of the fibroblast growth factor family which could act in the olfactory epithelium. The widespread distribution of receptors suggests that fibroblast growth factors may have roles other than proliferation of globose basal cells. (C) 2001 Published by Elsevier Science B.V.

Nerve growth factor overexpression and autocrine loop in breast cancer cells

We show here that nerve growth factor (NGF), the canonical neurotrophic factor, is synthesized and released by breast cancer cells. High levels of NGF transcript and protein were detected in breast cancer cells by reverse transcription-PCR, Western blotting, ELISA assay and immunohistochemistry. Conversely, NGF production could not be detected in normal breast epithelial cells at either the transcriptional or protein level. Confocal analysis indicated the presence of NGF within classical secretion vesicles. Breast cancer cell-produced NGF was biologically active, as demonstrated by its ability to induce the neuronal differentiation of embryonic neural precursor cells. Importantly, the constitutive growth of breast cancer cells was strongly inhibited by either NGF-neutralizing antibodies or K-252a, a pharmacological inhibitor of NGF receptor TrkA, indicating the existence of an NGF autocrine loop. Together, our data demonstrate the physiological relevance of NGF in breast cancer and its potential interest as a marker and therapeutic target.

Dietary interactions influence the effects of bovine folate-binding protein on the bioavailability of tetrahydrofolates in rats

The newborns of mammals have a high folate demand, yet obtain adequate folate nutrition solely from their mothers' milk despite its low folate content. Milk folate is entirely bound by an excess of folate-binding protein (FBP), prompting speculation that FBP may affect the bioavailability of the limited folate supply. Previous research has shown that FBP-bound folic acid is more gradually absorbed, thereby reducing the peak plasma folate concentration and preventing loss into the urine. Natural folates are reduced derivatives of folic acid, with milk predominantly containing 5-methyltetrahydrofolate, yet little research has been carried out to determine the role of FBP in the bioavailability of reduced folates. We studied the effect of FBP on folate nutrition of rats in both single-dose and 4-wk feeding experiments. The effect of FBP was influenced by the presence of other milk components. FBP increased bioavailability of dietary folate when it was consumed with other whey proteins or with soluble casein. However, in the presence of acid-precipitated casein or a whey preparation enriched in lipids, bioavailability was decreased. These results highlight the difficulties of extrapolating from experimental results obtained using purified diets alone and of studying interactions among dietary components. They suggest that the addition of FBP-rich foods to folate-rich foods could enhance the bioavailability of natural folates, but that the outcome of such a combination would depend on interactions with other components of the diet.

From allergy to schistosomes: role of Fc receptors and adhesion molecules in eosinophil effector function

The dual function of eosinophils has been evidenced in protective immunity against parasites as well as in pathological manifestations during allergic disorders. We have demonstrated that a new class of IgE receptors, FcepsilonRII/CD23, was involved in the functional duality of eosinophils and other proinflammatory cells. More recently, we have shown that FcepsilonRI, the high affinity IgE receptor thought to be only expressed by basophils and mast cells, was involved in eosinophil-mediated cytotoxicity against schistosomes as well as in mediator release. These results favour the view that both IgE and its receptors have been primarily associated to a protective immune response, rather than to pathology. Not only IgE receptors but also members belonging to the family of adhesion molecules can participate as co-receptors in eosinophil effector function. The inhibitory role of monoclonal antibodies to LewisX (LeX, CD15) or to selectins in eosinophil-mediated cytotoxicity towards schistosomes and the detection of LeX and 'selectin-like' molecules on schistosomula surface indicate a double interaction mediated by selectins and their carbohydrate ligands between eosinophils and schistosomula. These results suggest new functions for these adhesion molecules, previously known to be involved mainly in cell infiltration.

Functional glycosylation of dystroglycan is crucial for thymocyte development in the mouse.

BACKGROUND: Alpha-dystroglycan (alpha-DG) is a cell surface receptor providing a molecular link between the extracellular matrix (ECM) and the actin-based cytoskeleton. During its biosynthesis, alpha-DG undergoes specific and unusual O-glycosylation crucial for its function as a high-affinity cellular receptor for ECM proteins. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We report that expression of functionally glycosylated alpha-DG during thymic development is tightly regulated in developing T cells and largely confined to CD4(-)CD8(-) double negative (DN) thymocytes. Ablation of DG in T cells had no effect on proliferation, migration or effector function but did reduce the size of the thymus due to a significant loss in absolute numbers of thymocytes. While numbers of DN thymocytes appeared normal, a marked reduction in CD4(+)CD8(+) double positive (DP) thymocytes occurred. In the periphery mature naïve T cells deficient in DG showed both normal proliferation in response to allogeneic cells and normal migration, effector and memory T cell function when tested in acute infection of mice with either lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) or influenza virus. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Our study demonstrates that DG function is modulated by glycosylation during T cell development in vivo and that DG is essential for normal development and differentiation of T cells.

Receptors and endocytosis of coxsackievirus A9

Coxsackievirus A9 (CV-A9) belongs to human enteroviruses within family Picornaviridae, which are the main cause of aseptic meningitis. In addition, CV-A9 causes a wide range of other clinical manifestations of acute disease including respiratory infections, myocarditis, encephalitis and severe generalized infections in newborns. In this study, the functions of integrins αVβ6 and αVβ3 in the attachment and cellular entry of CV-A9 were analyzed. Further, virus and cell surface interactions and endocytosis of CV-A9 were studied in specific cell lines. Also, a method for production of GFP-expressing CV-A9 particles by long PCR-mediated mutagenesis and in vivo transcription was developed. The results indicated that RGD-motif (arginine-glycine-asparagine) that resides in the viral capsid is important for CV-A9 infection particularly in cell lines expressing integrin αVβ6 and that this integrin serves as a high affinity attachment receptor for the virus. CV-A9 is also capable of infecting certain cell lines independently of αV-integrins by binding to the cell surface HSPA5 protein. Regardless of the attachment stage, the internalization of the virus occurs via the same entry pathway and is dependent on β2M, dynamin, and Arf6 but independent of clathrin and caveolin-1. Furthermore, the virus internalization occurs within Arf6-containing vesicles suggesting that Arf6 is central mediator of CV-A9 endocytosis. While in this study the results of CV-A9 endocytosis were based on microscopical visualization within individual fixed cells, a rapid method for generation of a virus for real-time imaging was also described.

Role of immunoglobulin E and mast cells in murine models of asthma

Immunoglobulin E (IgE) and mast cells are believed to play important roles in allergic inflammation. However, their contributions to the pathogenesis of human asthma have not been clearly established. Significant progress has been made recently in our understanding of airway inflammation and airway hyperresponsiveness through studies of murine models of asthma and genetically engineered mice. Some of the studies have provided significant insights into the role of IgE and mast cells in the allergic airway response. In these models mice are immunized systemically with soluble protein antigens and then receive an antigen challenge through the airways. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from mice with allergic airway inflammation contains significant amounts of IgE. The IgE can capture the antigen presented to the airways and the immune complexes so formed can augment allergic airway response in a high-affinity IgE receptor (FcepsilonRI)-dependent manner. Previously, there were conflicting reports regarding the role of mast cells in murine models of asthma, based on studies of mast cell-deficient mice. More recent studies have suggested that the extent to which mast cells contribute to murine models of asthma depends on the experimental conditions employed to generate the airway response. This conclusion was further supported by studies using FcepsilonRI-deficient mice. Therefore, IgE-dependent activation of mast cells plays an important role in the development of allergic airway inflammation and airway hyperresponsiveness in mice under specific conditions. The murine models used should be of value for testing inhibitors of IgE or mast cells for the development of therapeutic agents for human asthma.

Étude du système dopaminergique pré- et postsynaptique : régulation de l'autorécepteur D2 par la neurotensine et formation des synapses excitatrices dans le striatum

La dopamine (DA) est un neurotransmetteur impliqué dans la modulation de fonctions essentielles du cerveau telles que le contrôle des mouvements volontaires, le système de récompense et certains aspects de la cognition. Depuis sa découverte, la DA a attiré énormément d'attention scientifique en partie à cause des pathologies majeures associées aux dysfonctions du système DAergique, comme la maladie de Parkinson, la schizophrénie et la toxicomanie. On retrouve la majorité des neurones qui synthétisent la DA au niveau du mésencéphale ventral, dans les noyaux de la substance noire compacte (SNc) et de l'aire tegmentaire ventrale (ATV). Ces neurones projettent leurs axones dans un très dense réseau de fibres qui s'organisent en trois voies DAergiques classiques: la voie nigrostriée, la voie mésolimbique et la voie mésocorticale. La transmission DAergique s'effectue par l'activation de récepteurs de la DA qui font partie de la grande famille des récepteurs couplés aux protéines G (RCPGs). Les récepteurs de la DA sont abondamment exprimés aussi bien par les neurones DAergiques que par les neurones des régions cibles, ce qui implique que la compréhension de la signalisation et des fonctions particulières des récepteurs de la DA pré- et postsynaptiques représente un enjeu crucial dans l'étude du système DAergique. Cette thèse de doctorat se sépare donc en deux volets distincts: le premier s'intéresse à la régulation du récepteur D2 présynaptique par la neurotensine (NT), un neuropeptide intimement lié à la modulation du système DAergique; le deuxième s'intéresse au côté postsynaptique du système DAergique, plus particulièrement à la ségrégation de l'expression des récepteurs de la DA dans le striatum et aux fonctions de ces récepteurs dans l'établissement des circuits neuronaux excitateurs prenant place dans cette région. Dans la première partie de cette thèse, nous démontrons que l'activation du récepteur à haute affinité de la NT, le NTR1, provoque une internalisation hétérologue du récepteur D2, avec une amplitude et une cinétique différente selon l'isoforme D2 observé. Cette internalisation hétérologue dépend de la protéine kinase C (PKC), et nous montrons que la surexpression d'un récepteur D2 muté sur des sites de phosphorylation par la PKC ii ainsi que l'inhibition de l'expression de β-arrestine1 par ARNs interférents dans des neurones DAergiques bloquent complètement l'interaction fonctionnelle entre le NTR1 et le D2. Dans la deuxième partie de cette thèse, nous démontrons d'abord que la ségrégation de l'expression des récepteurs D1 et D2 dans le striatum est déjà bien établie dès le 18e jour embryonnaire, bien qu'elle progresse encore significativement aux jours 0 et 14 postnataux. Nos résultats témoignent aussi d'un maintien complet de cette ségrégation lorsque les neurones striataux sont mis en culture aussi bien en présence ou en absence de neurones corticaux et/ou mésencéphaliques. Ensuite, nous montrons que la présence de neurones mésencéphaliques stimule la formation d’épines et de synapses excitatrices sur les neurones striataux épineux exprimant le récepteur D2 (MSN-D2). Le co-phénotype glutamatergique des neurones dopaminergiques semble nécessaire à une grande partie de cet effet. Par ailleurs, le nombre total de terminaisons excitatrices formées sur les MSN-D2 par les neurones corticaux et mésencéphaliques apparaît être régit par un équilibre dynamique. Finalement, nous démontrons que le blocage de la signalisation des récepteurs D1 et D2 de la DA n'est pas nécessaire pour la formation des synapses excitatrices des MSN-D2, alors que l'antagonisme des récepteurs glutamatergiques ionotropes diminue la densité d'épines dendritiques et contrôle de façon opposée le nombre de terminaisons excitatrices corticales et mésencéphaliques. Globalement, ce travail représente une contribution significative pour une meilleure compréhension du fonctionnement normal du système DAergique. Ces découvertes sont susceptibles d’être utiles pour mieux comprendre les dysfonctions de ce système dans le cadre de pathologies du cerveau comme la maladie de Parkinson.

Mécanismes cellulaires et moléculaires impliqués dans le développement des synapses GABAergiques périsomatiques et dans la plasticité corticale : rôle de l’activité neuronale et de proBDNF/p75NTR

Dans le cortex visuel des mammifères, une cellule à panier (BC) qui représente un sous-type majoritaire d’interneurones GABAergiques, innerve une centaine de neurones par une multitude de synapses localisées sur le soma et sur les dendrites proximales de chacune de ses cibles. De plus, ces cellules sont importantes pour la génération des rythmes gammas, qui régulent de nombreuses fonctions cognitives, et pour la régulation de la plasticité corticale. Bien que la fonction des BC au sein des réseaux corticaux est à l'étude, les mécanismes qui contrôlent le développement de leur arborisation complexe ainsi que de leurs nombreux contacts synaptiques n’ont pas été entièrement déterminés. En utilisant les récepteurs allatostatines couplés aux protéines G de la drosophile (AlstR), nous démontrons in vitro que la réduction de l'excitation ainsi que la réduction de la libération des neurotransmetteurs par les BCs corticales individuelles des souris, diminuent le nombre de cellules innervées sans modifier le patron d'innervation périsomatique, durant et après la phase de prolifération des synapses périsomatiques. Inversement, lors de la suppression complète de la libération des neurotransmetteurs par les BCs individuelles avec l’utilisation de la chaîne légère de la toxine tétanus, nous observons des effets contraires selon le stade de développement. Les BCs exprimant TeNT-Lc pendant la phase de prolifération sont caractérisées par des arborisations axonales plus denses et un nombre accru de petits boutons homogènes autour des somas innervés. Toutefois, les cellules transfectées avec TeNT-Lc après la phase de la prolifération forment une innervation périsomatique avec moins de branchements terminaux d’axones et un nombre réduit de boutons avec une taille irrégulière autour des somas innervés. Nos résultats révèlent le rôle spécifique des niveaux de l’activité neuronale et de la neurotransmission dans l'établissement du territoire synaptique des cellules GABAergiques corticaux. Le facteur neurotrophique dérivé du cerveau (BDNF) est un modulateur puissant de la maturation activité-dépendante des synapses GABAergiques. Grâce à l'activation et à la signalisation de son récepteur tyrosine kinase B (TrkB), la liaison de mBDNF module fortement la prolifération des synapses périsomatiques GABAergiques formés par les BCs. Par contre, le rôle du récepteur neurotrophique de faible affinité, p75NTR, dans le développement du territoire synaptique des cellules reste encore inconnu. Dans ce projet, nous démontrons que la suppression de p75NTR au niveau des BCs individuelles in vitro provenant de souris p75NTRlox induit la formation d'une innervation périsomatique exubérante. BDNF est synthétisé sous une forme précurseur, proBDNF, qui est par la suite clivée par des enzymes, y compris la plasmine activée par tPA, pour produire une forme mature de BDNF (m)BDNF. mBDNF et proBDNF se lient avec une forte affinité à TrkB et p75NTR, respectivement. Nos résultats démontrent qu’un traitement des cultures organotypiques avec la forme résistante au clivage de proBDNF (mut-proBDNF) réduit fortement le territoire synaptique des BCs. Les cultures traitées avec le peptide PPACK, qui inactive tPA, ou avec tPA altèrent et favorisent respectivement la maturation de l’innervation synaptique des BCs. Nous démontrons aussi que l’innervation exubérante formée par les BCs p75NTR-/- n’est pas affectée par un traitement avec mut-proBDNF. L’ensemble de ces résultats suggère que l'activation de p75NTR via proBDNF régule négativement le territoire synaptique des BCs corticaux. Nous avons ensuite examiné si mut-proBDNF affecte l’innervation périsomatique formée par les BCs in vivo, chez la souris adulte. Nous avons constaté que les boutons GABAergiques périsomatiques sont significativement diminués dans le cortex infusé avec mut-proBDNF par rapport à l’hémisphère non-infusé ou traité avec de la saline. En outre, la plasticité de la dominance oculaire (OD) est rétablie par ce traitement chez la souris adulte. Enfin, en utilisant des souris qui ne possèdent pas le récepteur p75NTR dans leurs BCs spécifiquement, nous avons démontré que l'activation de p75NTR via proBDNF est nécessaire pour induire la plasticité de la OD chez les souris adultes. L’ensemble de ces résultats démontre un rôle critique de l'activation de p75NTR dans la régulation et le maintien de la connectivité des circuits GABAergiques, qui commencent lors du développement postnatal précoce jusqu’à l'âge adulte. De plus, nous suggérons que l'activation contrôlée de p75NTR pourrait être un outil utile pour restaurer la plasticité dans le cortex adulte.

Targeted Stimuli-Responsive Dextran Conjugates for Doxorubicin Delivery to Hepatocytes

A targeted, stimuli-responsive, polymeric drug delivery vehicle is being developed in our lab to help alleviate severe side-effects caused by narrow therapeutic window drugs. Targeting specific cell types or organs via proteins, specifically, lectin-mediated targeting holds potential due to the high specificity and affinity of receptor-ligand interactions, rapid internalization, and relative ease of processing. Dextran, a commercially available, biodegradable polymer has been conjugated to doxorubicin and galactosamine to target hepatocytes in a three-step, one-pot synthesis. The loading of doxorubicin and galactose on the conjugates was determined by absorbance at 485 nm and elemental analysis, respectively. Conjugation efficiency based on the amount loaded of each reactant varies from 20% to 50% for doxorubicin and from 2% to 20% for galactosamine. Doxorubicin has also been attached to dextran through an acid-labile hydrazide bond. Doxorubicin acts by intercalating with DNA in the nuclei of cells. The fluorescence of doxorubicin is quenched when it binds to DNA. This allows a fluorescence-based cell-free assay to evaluate the efficacy of the polymer conjugates where we measure the fluorescence of doxorubicin and the conjugates in increasing concentrations of calf thymus DNA. Fluorescence quenching indicates that our conjugates can bind to DNA. The degree of binding increases with polymer molecular weight and substitution of doxorubicin. In cell culture experiments with hepatocytes, the relative uptake of polymer conjugates was evaluated using flow cytometry, and the killing efficiency was determined using the MTT cell proliferation assay. We have found that conjugate uptake is much lower than that of free doxorubicin. Lower uptake of conjugates may increase the maximum dose of drug tolerated by the body. Also, non-galactosylated conjugate uptake is lower than that of the galactosylated conjugate. Microscopy indicates that doxorubicin localizes almost exclusively at the nucleus, whereas the conjugates are present throughout the cell. Doxorubicin linked to dextran through a hydrazide bond was used to achieve improved killing efficiency. Following uptake, the doxorubicin dissociates from the polymer in an endosomal compartment and diffuses to the nucleus. The LC₅₀ of covalently linked doxorubicin is 7.4 μg/mL, whereas that of hydrazide linked doxorubicin is 4.4 μg/mL.

Characterization of Grb2-binding proteins in human platelets activated by Fc gamma RIIA cross-linking.

Glutathione-S-transferase (GST)-Grb2 fusion proteins have been used to identify the potential role of Grb2-binding proteins in platelet activation by the platelet low-affinity IgG receptor, Fc gamma RIIA. Two tyrosine phosphoproteins of 38 and 63 kD bind to the SH2 domain of Grb2 following Fc gamma RIIA stimulation of platelets. Both are located in the particulate fraction following platelet activation and are also able to bind to a GST-construct containing the SH2 and SH3 domains of phospholipase C gamma 1. p38 also forms a complex with the tyrosine kinase csk in stimulated cells and is a substrate for the kinase. The SH3 domains of Grb2 form a stable complex with SOS1 and two proteins of 75 kD and 120 kD, which undergo tyrosine phosphorylation in Fc gamma RIIA stimulated cells. The 75-kD protein is recognized by antibodies to SLP-76, which has recently been isolated from T cells and sequenced. Tyrosine phosphorylation of p38 and p63 is also observed in platelets stimulated by the tyrosine kinase-linked receptor agonist collagen and by the G protein-coupled receptor agonist thrombin, although phosphorylation of SLP-76 is only observed in collagen-stimulated platelets. p38 and p63 may provide a docking site for Grb2, thereby linking Grb2 SH3-binding proteins SOS1, SLP-76, and p120 to downstream signalling events.