Uptake kinetics of metals by the earthworm Eisenia fetida exposed to field-contaminated soils

It is well known that earthworms can accumulate metals. However, most accumulation studies focus on Cd-, Cu-, Pb- or Zn-amended soils, additionally few studies consider accumulation kinetics. Here we model the accumulation kinetics of 18 elements by Eisenia fetida, exposed to 8 metal-contaminated and 2 uncontaminated soils. Tissue metal concentration was determined after 3, 7,14, 21, 28 and 42 days. Metal elimination rate was important in determining time to reach steady-state tissue metal concentration. Uptake flux to elimination rate ratios showed less variation and lower values for essential than for non-essential metals. In theory kinetic rate constants are dependent only on species and metal. Therefore it should be possible to predict steady-state tissue metal concentrations on the basis of very few measurements using the rate constants. However, our experiments show that it is difficult to extrapolate the accumulation kinetic constants derived using one soil to another. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The impact of fallowing and green manuring on soil conditions and the growth of sugarcane

There are currently concerns within some sugar industries that long-term monoculture has led to soil degradation and consequent yield decline. An investigation was conducted in Swaziland to assess the effects of fallowing and green manuring practices, over a seven-month period, on sugarcane yields and the physical properties of a poorly draining clay soil. In the subsequent first sugarcane crop after planting, yields were improved from 129 t ha(-1) under continuous sugarcane to 141-144 t ha(-1) after fallowing and green manuring, but there were no significant responses in the first and second ratoon crops. Also, in the first crop after planting, root length index increased from 3.5 km m(-2) under continuous sugarcane to 5.2-6.8 km m(-2) after fallowing, and improved rooting was still evident in the first ratoon crop where there had been soil drying during the fallow period. Soil bulk density, total porosity and water-holding capacity were not affected by the fallowing practices. However, air-filled porosity increased from 11% under continuous sugarcane to 16% after fallowing, and steady state ponded infiltration rates were increased from 0.61 mm h(-1) to 1.34 mm h(-1), but these improvements were no longer evident after a year back under sugarcane. Levels of soil organic matter were reduced in all cases, probably as a result of the tillage operations involved. In the plant crop, root length was well correlated with air-filled porosity, indicating the importance of improving belowground air supply for crop production on poorly draining clay soils.

Aspectos da produtividade do feijão correlacionados com atributos físicos do solo sob elevado nível tecnológico de manejo

No ano agrícola de 2006/07, no município de Selvíria (MS), foi analisada a produtividade do feijão em função de alguns atributos físicos de um Latossolo Vermelho distroférrico, cultivado nas condições de elevado nível tecnológico de manejo pelo sistema plantio direto irrigado com pivô central. O objetivo foi selecionar, entre os atributos pesquisados do solo, aquele com a melhor representatividade para explicar a variabilidade da produtividade agrícola. Foi instalada a malha geoestatística, para a coleta de dados do solo e da planta, com 117 pontos amostrais, numa área de 2.025 m² e declive homogêneo de 0,055 m m-1. do ponto de vista linear e espacial, a produtividade de feijão foi explicada em função da densidade de partículas e da umidade gravimétrica do solo, respectivamente. Assim, os valores de densidade de partículas entre 1,95 e 2,20 kg dm-3 e de umidade gravimétrica entre 0,205 e 0,239 kg kg-1; ambas coletadas na camada intermediária, resultaram em sítios com as mais elevadas produtividades (2.200-2.600 kg ha-1). Entretanto, para as condições do elevado nível tecnológico de manejo empregado, a produtividade média do feijão não atingiu seu máximo potencial, uma vez que o agravado estado de compactação no qual o solo se encontrava proporcionou à produtividade redução de 26,6 %. Dessa forma, os valores médios da densidade do solo e da resistência do solo à penetração, respectivamente nas faixas de 1,36-1,41 kg dm-3 e de 1,56-3,24 MPa, típicos de solos argilosos compactados, atestaram a substancial queda da produtividade de grãos de feijão.

Método alternativo de avaliação da absorção de atrazine por plantas de Brachiaria plantaginea

Dois experimentos foram conduzidos em casa de vegetação da Universidade Estadual de Maringá (UEM)-PR, objetivando desenvolver metodologia alternativa para avaliar a absorção foliar e radicular de herbicidas. O delineamento experimental utilizado foi o inteiramente casualizado com 11 e 5 tratamentos para os solos arenoso e argiloso, respectivamente, ambos os experimentos com quatro repetições, constituídos por plantas de B. plantaginea em dois estádios. O herbicida atrazine foi aplicado nas doses de 2,5 e 3,0 kg ha¹ em solos arenoso e argiloso, utilizando um pulverizador costal pressurizado por CO2. Os tratamentos foram constituídos por plantas protegidas com canudos plásticos em solo descoberto e plantas desprotegidas em solo coberto com papel-alumínio, associadas a condições de solo seco e úmido, ou em ambas as condições, acrescidas de irrigação de 20 mm apenas ao solo após aplicação. A absorção foliar da atrazine foi eficiente no controle de B. plantaginea com duas a três folhas em solo arenoso e argiloso, ao contrário do estádio de quatro a cinco folhas, onde houve necessidade de associar os efeitos da absorção foliar e radicular para se obter controle satisfatório. A irrigação de 20 mm ampliou o controle da absorção radicular de B. plantaginea em diferentes estádios de plantas, solo e umidade do solo. A metodologia apresentou-se viável como ferramenta alternativa para avaliação da absorção foliar e radicular de herbicidas, no controle de gramíneas em estádio inicial de desenvolvimento.

Perdas de solo e índices de vegetação: proposta metodológica para a determinação do fator C (MEUPS) em pastagens e cana-de-açúcar

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Avaliação dos modelos de predição da erosão hídrica MEUPS e WEPP: contribuição em bacias hidrográficas

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Diffusivity and enzymatic activity control the exchange of carbonyl sulfide (COS) between soils and the atmosphere

Carbonylsulfid (COS) ist eines der stabilsten reduzierten schwefelhaltigen Spurengase in der Atmosphäre. In der gut durchmischten Troposphäre bewegt sich seine Konzentration um 500 ppt. COS spielt eine wichtige Rolle in der Produktion von stratosphärischem Aerosol und im Ozon Zyklus. Dieses Spurengas hat eine Vielfalt an natürlichen und anthropogenen Quellen, denen gleichstarke Senken, darunter die dominanten wie Vegetation und Boden, gegenüber stehen. Die Stärke der Senken ist trotz langjähriger Forschungen immer noch Gegenstand der Diskussionen. Daher ist es wichtig die kontrollierenden Parameter zu charakterisieren. Alle Austauschmessungen vor 1990 vermuteten Böden als Quelle von COS, was aber durch Castro and Galloway (1991) klar widerlegt wurde. Heute werden Böden in Ergänzung zur Vegetation grundsätzlich als Senke betrachtet. Vor diesem Hintergrund wurden Bodenproben auf den Austausch von Carbonylsulfid mit der Atmosphäre unter verschiedenen Umgebungsbedingungen untersucht. Drei Ackerböden aus Deutschland, China und Finnland und zwei Waldböden aus Sibirien und Surinam konnten parametrisiert werden in Relation zur atmosphärischen Umgebungskonzentration, Temperatur und Bodenfeuchte (WC). Neben Umgebungskonzentration und Bodenfeuchte, scheinen Bodenstruktur und enzymatische Aktivität die Richtung und Größe des Austauschflusses zu kontrollieren. Die übereinstimmenden Optima für boreale Böden in Relation zum wassergefüllten Porenvolumen des Bodens (WFPS) und die Linearität zwischen Depositionsgeschwindigkeit (Vd) und Bulk density lassen auf eine Dominanz der Abhängigkeit der COS-Aufnahme von der durch WFPS bestimmten Diffusionsfähigkeit schließen. WFPS ist abhängig von WC, Bodenstruktur und Bodenporosität. In Ergänzung zu diesen eher physikalischen Parametern konnte die Carboanhydrase (CA) als kontrollierendes Enzym in Böden identifiziert werden. Erste Versuche zur direkten Bestimmung der CA in den untersuchten Böden erlaubten eine erste, aber noch sehr ungenaue Abschätzung der Enzymaktivität.

Monitoring Stormwater Redistribution Into Low Resistivity Soils Using Noninvasive Geophysical Techniques

Water held in the unsaturated zone is important for agriculture and construction and is replenished by infiltrating rainwater. Monitoring the soil water content of clay soils using ground-penetrating radar (GPR) has not been researched, as clay soils cause attenuation of GPR signal. In this study, GPR common-midpoint soundings (CMPs) are used in the clayey soils of the Miller Run floodplain to monitor changes in the soil water content (SWC) before and after rainfall events. GPR accomplishes this task because increases in water content will increase the dielectric constant of the subsurface material, and decrease the velocity of the GPR wave. Using an empirical relationship between dielectric constant and SWC, the Topp relation, we are able to calculate a SWC from these velocity measurements. Non-invasive electromagnetics, resistivity, and seismic were performed, and from these surveys, the layering at the field site was delineated. EM characterized the horizontal variation of the soil, allowing us to target the most clay rich area. At the CMP location, resistivity indicates the vertical structure of the subsurface consists of a 40 cm thick layer with a resistivity of 100 ohm*m. Between 40 cm and 1.5 m is a layer with a resistivity of 40 ohm*m. The thickness estimates were confirmed with invasive auger and trenching methods away from the CMP location. GPR CMPs were collected relative to a July 2013 and September 2013 storm. The velocity observations from the CMPs had a precision of +/- 0.001 m/ns as assessed by repeat analysis. In the case of both storms, the GPR data showed the expected relationship between the rainstorms and calculated SWC, with the SWC increasing sharply after the rainstorm and decreasing as time passed. We compared these data to auger core samples collected at the same time as the CMPs were taken, and the volumetric analysis of the cores confirmed the trend seen in the GPR, with SWC values between 3 and 5 percent lower than the GPR estimates. Our data shows that we can, with good precision, monitor changes in the SWC of conductive soils in response to rainfall events, despite the attenuation induced by the clay.

Bulk composition and clay mineralogy at DSDP Legs 56 and 57

Altogether 513 samples from sediments of Cretaceous to Pleistocene age from DSDP Legs 56 and 57 were examined by x-ray methods. The main constituents are clay minerals, quartz, feldspar, opaline silica, and volcanic glass. The sediment composition reflects the position of the sites in relation to the main source area, the Japanese Island Arc. For example, relatively coarse-grained material rich in quartz and feldspar was deposited closest to the islands, whereas finer-grained material rich in clay minerals (mainly smectite and illite, with lesser amounts of kaolinite and chlorite) was deposited farther seaward. Vertical fluctuations in the composition of the sediments show the same trend in all sites and are caused mainly by a fluctuating contribution of biogenic silica with time. A trend reversal in the chlorite/kaolinite ratio at Site 438 supports the conclusion that the subsidence of the Oyashio ancient landmass took place during the middle Miocene. That ratio also indicates a northwest drift in the position of Site 436 by sea floor spreading. Oscillations of the illite/smectite ratio during the Pleistocene at Site 436 show the variations of climate during this period. During early diagenesis potassium is fixed in smectite. With increasing depth of burial a smectite-illite mixed layer is formed, with increasing illite layering. At Sites 434, 440, and 441, stepwise changes confirm intensive tectonic process at the midslope terrace and the lower inner slope of the Japan Trench.

Carbon allocation in north-western Amazon forests (Colombia)

Los estudios sobre la asignación del carbono en los ecosistemas forestales proporcionan información esencial para la comprensión de las diferencias espaciales y temporales en el ciclo del carbono de tal forma que pueden aportar información a los modelos y, así predecir las posibles respuestas de los bosques a los cambios en el clima. Dentro de este contexto, los bosques Amazónicos desempeñan un papel particularmente importante en el balance global del carbono; no obstante, existen grandes incertidumbres en cuanto a los controles abióticos en las tasas de la producción primaria neta (PPN), la asignación de los productos de la fotosíntesis a los diferentes componentes o compartimentos del ecosistema (aéreo y subterráneo) y, cómo estos componentes de la asignación del carbono responden a eventos climáticos extremos. El objetivo general de esta tesis es analizar los componentes de la asignación del carbono en bosques tropicales maduros sobre suelos contrastantes, que crecen bajo condiciones climáticas similares en dos sitios ubicados en la Amazonia noroccidental (Colombia): el Parque Natural Nacional Amacayacu y la Estación Biológica Zafire. Con este objetivo, realicé mediciones de los componentes de la asignación del carbono (biomasa, productividad primaria neta, y su fraccionamiento) a nivel ecosistémico y de la dinámica forestal (tasas anuales de mortalidad y reclutamiento), a lo largo de ocho años (20042012) en seis parcelas permanentes de 1 hectárea establecidas en cinco tipos de bosques sobre suelos diferentes (arcilloso, franco-arcilloso, franco-arcilloso-arenoso, franco-arenoso y arena-francosa). Toda esta información me permitió abordar preguntas específicas que detallo a continuación. En el Capítulo 2 evalúe la hipótesis de que a medida que aumenta la fertilidad del suelo disminuye la cantidad del carbono asignado a la producción subterránea (raíces finas con diámetro <2 mm). Y para esto, realicé mediciones de la masa y la producción de raíces finas usando dos métodos: (1) el de los cilindros de crecimiento y, (2) el de los cilindros de extracción secuencial. El monitoreo se realizó durante 2.2 años en los bosques con suelos más contrastantes: arcilla y arena-francosa. Encontré diferencias significativas en la masa de raíces finas y su producción entre los bosques y, también con respecto a la profundidad del suelo (010 y 1020 cm). El bosque sobre arena-francosa asignó más carbono a las raíces finas que el bosque sobre arcillas. La producción de raíces finas en el bosque sobre arena-francosa fue dos veces más alta (media ± error estándar = 2.98 ± 0.36 y 3.33 ± 0.69 Mg C ha1 año1, con el método 1 y 2, respectivamente), que para el bosque sobre arcillas, el suelo más fértil (1.51 ± 0.14, método 1, y desde 1.03 ± 0.31 a 1.36 ± 0.23 Mg C ha1 año1, método 2). Del mismo modo, el promedio de la masa de raíces finas fue tres veces mayor en el bosque sobre arena-francosa (5.47 ± 0.17 Mg C ha1) que en el suelo más fértil (de 1.52 ± 0.08 a 1.82 ± 0.09 Mg C ha1). La masa de las raíces finas también mostró un patrón temporal relacionado con la lluvia, mostrando que la producción de raíces finas disminuyó sustancialmente en el período seco del año 2005. Estos resultados sugieren que los recursos del suelo pueden desempeñar un papel importante en los patrones de la asignación del carbono entre los componentes aéreo y subterráneo de los bosques tropicales; y que el suelo no sólo influye en las diferencias en la masa de raíces finas y su producción, sino que también, en conjunto con la lluvia, sobre la estacionalidad de la producción. En el Capítulo 3 estimé y analicé los tres componentes de la asignación del carbono a nivel del ecosistema: la biomasa, la productividad primaria neta PPN, y su fraccionamiento, en los mismos bosques del Capítulo 2 (el bosque sobre arcillas y el bosque sobre arena-francosa). Encontré diferencias significativas en los patrones de la asignación del carbono entre los bosques; el bosque sobre arcillas presentó una mayor biomasa total y aérea, así como una PPN, que el bosque sobre arena-francosa. Sin embargo, la diferencia entre los dos bosques en términos de la productividad primaria neta total fue menor en comparación con las diferencias entre la biomasa total de los bosques, como consecuencia de las diferentes estrategias en la asignación del carbono a los componentes aéreo y subterráneo del bosque. La proporción o fracción de la PPN asignada a la nueva producción de follaje fue relativamente similar entre los dos bosques. Nuestros resultados de los incrementos de la biomasa aérea sugieren una posible compensación entre la asignación del carbono al crecimiento de las raíces finas versus el de la madera, a diferencia de la compensación comúnmente asumida entre la parte aérea y la subterránea en general. A pesar de estas diferencias entre los bosques en términos de los componentes de la asignación del carbono, el índice de área foliar fue relativamente similar entre ellos, lo que sugiere que el índice de área foliar es más un indicador de la PPN total que de la asignación de carbono entre componentes. En el Capítulo 4 evalué la variación espacial y temporal de los componentes de la asignación del carbono y la dinámica forestal de cinco tipos e bosques amazónicos y sus respuestas a fluctuaciones en la precipitación, lo cual es completamente relevante en el ciclo global del carbono y los procesos biogeoquímicos en general. Estas variaciones son así mismo importantes para evaluar los efectos de la sequía o eventos extremos sobre la dinámica natural de los bosques amazónicos. Evalué la variación interanual y la estacionalidad de los componentes de la asignación del carbono y la dinámica forestal durante el periodo 2004−2012, en cinco bosques maduros sobre diferentes suelos (arcilloso, franco-arcilloso, franco-arcilloso-arenoso, franco-arenoso y arena-francosa), todos bajo el mismo régimen local de precipitación en la Amazonia noroccidental (Colombia). Quería examinar sí estos bosques responden de forma similar a las fluctuaciones en la precipitación, tal y como pronostican muchos modelos. Consideré las siguientes preguntas: (i) ¿Existe una correlación entre los componentes de la asignación del carbono y la dinámica forestal con la precipitación? (ii) ¿Existe correlación entre los bosques? (iii) ¿Es el índice de área foliar (LAI) un indicador de las variaciones en la producción aérea o es un reflejo de los cambios en los patrones de la asignación del carbono entre bosques?. En general, la correlación entre los componentes aéreo y subterráneo de la asignación del carbono con la precipitación sugiere que los suelos juegan un papel importante en las diferencias espaciales y temporales de las respuestas de estos bosques a las variaciones en la precipitación. Por un lado, la mayoría de los bosques mostraron que los componentes aéreos de la asignación del carbono son susceptibles a las fluctuaciones en la precipitación; sin embargo, el bosque sobre arena-francosa solamente presentó correlación con la lluvia con el componente subterráneo (raíces finas). Por otra parte, a pesar de que el noroeste Amazónico es considerado sin una estación seca propiamente (definida como <100 mm meses −1), la hojarasca y la masa de raíces finas mostraron una alta variabilidad y estacionalidad, especialmente marcada durante la sequía del 2005. Además, los bosques del grupo de suelos francos mostraron que la hojarasca responde a retrasos en la precipitación, al igual que la masa de raíces finas del bosque sobre arena-francosa. En cuanto a la dinámica forestal, sólo la tasa de mortalidad del bosque sobre arena-francosa estuvo correlacionada con la precipitación (ρ = 0.77, P <0.1). La variabilidad interanual en los incrementos en el tallo y la biomasa de los individuos resalta la importancia de la mortalidad en la variación de los incrementos en la biomasa aérea. Sin embargo, las tasas de mortalidad y las proporciones de individuos muertos por categoría de muerte (en pie, caído de raíz, partido y desaparecido), no mostraron tendencias claras relacionadas con la sequía. Curiosamente, la hojarasca, el incremento en la biomasa aérea y las tasas de reclutamiento mostraron una alta correlación entre los bosques, en particular dentro del grupo de los bosques con suelos francos. Sin embargo, el índice de área foliar estimado para los bosques con suelos más contrastantes (arcilla y arena-francosa), no presentó correlación significativa con la lluvia; no obstante, estuvo muy correlacionado entre bosques; índice de área foliar no reflejó las diferencias en la asignación de los componentes del carbono, y su respuesta a la precipitación en estos bosques. Por último, los bosques estudiados muestran que el noroeste amazónico es susceptible a fenómenos climáticos, contrario a lo propuesto anteriormente debido a la ausencia de una estación seca propiamente dicha. ABSTRACT Studies of carbon allocation in forests provide essential information for understanding spatial and temporal differences in carbon cycling that can inform models and predict possible responses to changes in climate. Amazon forests play a particularly significant role in the global carbon balance, but there are still large uncertainties regarding abiotic controls on the rates of net primary production (NPP) and the allocation of photosynthetic products to different ecosystem components; and how the carbon allocation components of Amazon forests respond to extreme climate events. The overall objective of this thesis is to examine the carbon allocation components in old-growth tropical forests on contrasting soils, and under similar climatic conditions in two sites at the Amacayacu National Natural Park and the Zafire Biological Station, located in the north-western Amazon (Colombia). Measurements of above- and below-ground carbon allocation components (biomass, net primary production, and its partitioning) at the ecosystem level, and dynamics of tree mortality and recruitment were done along eight years (20042012) in six 1-ha plots established in five Amazon forest types on different soils (clay, clay-loam, sandy-clay-loam, sandy-loam and loamy-sand) to address specific questions detailed in the next paragraphs. In Chapter 2, I evaluated the hypothesis that as soil fertility increases the amount of carbon allocated to below-ground production (fine-roots) should decrease. To address this hypothesis the standing crop mass and production of fine-roots (<2 mm) were estimated by two methods: (1) ingrowth cores and, (2) sequential soil coring, during 2.2 years in the most contrasting forests: the clay-soil forest and the loamy-sand forest. We found that the standing crop fine-root mass and its production were significantly different between forests and also between soil depths (0–10 and 10–20 cm). The loamysand forest allocated more carbon to fine-roots than the clay-soil forest, with fine-root production in the loamy-sand forest twice (mean ± standard error = 2.98 ± 0.36 and 3.33 ± 0.69 Mg C ha −1 yr −1, method 1 and 2, respectively) as much as for the more fertile claysoil forest (1.51 ± 0.14, method 1, and from 1.03 ± 0.31 to 1.36 ± 0.23 Mg C ha −1 yr −1, method 2). Similarly, the average of standing crop fine-root mass was three times higher in the loamy-sand forest (5.47 ± 0.17 Mg C ha1) than in the more fertile soil (from 1.52 ± 0.08 a 1.82 ± 0.09 Mg C ha1). The standing crop fine-root mass also showed a temporal pattern related to rainfall, with the production of fine-roots decreasing substantially in the dry period of the year 2005. These results suggest that soil resources may play an important role in patterns of carbon allocation of below-ground components, not only driven the differences in the biomass and its production, but also in the time when it is produced. In Chapter 3, I assessed the three components of stand-level carbon allocation (biomass, NPP, and its partitioning) for the same forests evaluated in Chapter 2 (clay-soil forest and loamy-sand forest). We found differences in carbon allocation patterns between these two forests, showing that the forest on clay-soil had a higher aboveground and total biomass as well as a higher above-ground NPP than the loamy-sand forest. However, differences between the two types of forests in terms of stand-level NPP were smaller, as a consequence of different strategies in the carbon allocation of above- and below-ground components. The proportional allocation of NPP to new foliage production was relatively similar between the two forests. Our results of aboveground biomass increments and fine-root production suggest a possible trade-off between carbon allocation to fine-roots versus wood growth (as it has been reported by other authors), as opposed to the most commonly assumed trade-off between total above- and below-ground production. Despite these differences among forests in terms of carbon allocation components, the leaf area index showed differences between forests like total NPP, suggesting that the leaf area index is more indicative of total NPP than carbon allocation. In Chapter 4, I evaluated the spatial and temporal variation of carbon allocation components and forest dynamics of Amazon forests as well as their responses to climatic fluctuations. I evaluated the intra- and inter-annual variation of carbon allocation components and forest dynamics during the period 2004−2012 in five forests on different soils (clay, clay-loam, sandy-clay-loam, sandy-loam and loamy-sand), but growing under the same local precipitation regime in north-western Amazonia (Colombia). We were interested in examining if these forests respond similarly to rainfall fluctuations as many models predict, considering the following questions: (i) Is there a correlation in carbon allocation components and forest dynamics with precipitation? (ii) Is there a correlation among forests? (iii) Are temporal responses in leaf area index (LAI) indicative of variations of above-ground production or a reflection of changes in carbon allocation patterns among forests?. Overall, the correlation of above- and below-ground carbon allocation components with rainfall suggests that soils play an important role in the spatial and temporal differences of responses of these forests to rainfall fluctuations. On the one hand, most forests showed that the above-ground components are susceptible to rainfall fluctuations; however, there was a forest on loamy-sand that only showed a correlation with the below-ground component (fine-roots). On the other hand, despite the fact that north-western Amazonia is considered without a conspicuous dry season (defined as <100 mm month−1), litterfall and fine-root mass showed high seasonality and variability, particularly marked during the drought of 2005. Additionally, forests of the loam-soil group showed that litterfall respond to time-lags in rainfall as well as and the fine-root mass of the loamy-sand forest. With regard to forest dynamics, only the mortality rate of the loamy-sand forest was significantly correlated with rainfall (77%). The observed inter-annual variability of stem and biomass increments of individuals highlighted the importance of the mortality in the above-ground biomass increment. However, mortality rates and death type proportion did not show clear trends related to droughts. Interestingly, litterfall, above-ground biomass increment and recruitment rates of forests showed high correlation among forests, particularly within the loam-soil forests group. Nonetheless, LAI measured in the most contrasting forests (clay-soil and loamysand) was poorly correlated with rainfall but highly correlated between forests; LAI did not reflect the differences in the carbon allocation components, and their response to rainfall on these forests. Finally, the forests studied highlight that north-western Amazon forests are also susceptible to climate fluctuations, contrary to what has been proposed previously due to their lack of a pronounced dry season.

Paleoambiental reconstruction based on mineralogical data of quaternary littoral deposits occuring at Cortegaça and Maceda beaches (Ovar, Portugal)

The main goal of the present work is the use of mineralogical data corresponding to sediment fine fractions (silt and clay) of Quaternary littoral deposits for the definition of a more detailed vertical zonography and to discriminate the most significant morphoclimatic changes concerned with sediment source areas and sediment deposition areas. The analysis of the available mineralogical data reveals a vertical evolution of the mineral composition. The following aspects deserve particular reference: 1) fine fractions (<38 nm) are composed of quartz and phyllosilicates associated to feldspars, prevailing over other minerals; however in certain sections iron hydroxides and evaporitic minerals occur in significant amounts; 2) clay fractions (<2 nm) show a general prevalence of illite associated with kaolinite and oscillations, in relative terms, of kaolinite and illite contents. Qualitative and quantitative lateral and vertical variations of clay and non clay minerals allow the discrimination of sedimentary sequences and the establishment of the ritmicity and periodicity of the morphoclimatic Quaternary episodes that occurred in the Cortegaça and Maceda beaches. To each one of the sedimentary sequences corresponds, in a first stage, a littoral environment that increasingly became more continental. Climate would be mild to cold, sometimes with humidity - aridity oscillations. Warmer and moister episodes alternated with cooler and dryer ones.

Water percolation estimated with time domain reflectometry (TDR) in drainage lysimeters

Due to the difficulty of estimating water percolation in unsaturated soils, the purpose of this study was to estimate water percolation based on time-domain reflectometry (TDR). In two drainage lysimeters with different soil textures TDR probes were installed, forming a water monitoring system consisting of different numbers of probes. The soils were saturated and covered with plastic to prevent evaporation. Tests of internal drainage were carried out using a TDR 100 unit with constant dielectric readings (every 15 min). To test the consistency of TDR-estimated percolation levels in comparison with the observed leachate levels in the drainage lysimeters, the combined null hypothesis was tested at 5 % probability. A higher number of probes in the water monitoring system resulted in an approximation of the percolation levels estimated from TDR - based moisture data to the levels measured by lysimeters. The definition of the number of probes required for water monitoring to estimate water percolation by TDR depends on the soil physical properties. For sandy clay soils, three batteries with four probes installed at depths of 0.20, 0.40, 0.60, and 0.80 m, at a distance of 0.20, 0.40 and 0.6 m from the center of lysimeters were sufficient to estimate percolation levels equivalent to the observed. In the sandy loam soils, the observed and predicted percolation levels were not equivalent even when using four batteries with four probes each, at depths of 0.20, 0.40, 0.60, and 0.80 m.

Effect of population densities of Heterodera glycines race 3 on leaf area, photosynthesis and yield of soybean

The effect of Heterodera glycines on photosynthesis, leaf area and yield of soybean (Glycine max) was studied in two experiments carried out under greenhouse condition. Soybean seeds were sown in 1.5 l (Experiment 1) or 5.0 l (Experiment 2) clay pots filled with a mixture of field soil + sand (1:1) sterilized with methyl bromide. Eight days after sowing, seedlings were thinned to one per pot, and one day later inoculated with 0; 1.200; 3.600; 10.800; 32.400 or 97.200 J2 juveniles of H. glycines. Experiment 1 was carried out during the first 45 days of the inoculation while Experiment 2 was conducted during the whole cycle of the crop. Measurements of photosynthetic rate, stomatic conductance, chlorophyll fluorescence, leaf color, leaf area, and chlorophyll leaf content were taken at ten-day intervals throughout the experiments. Data on fresh root weight, top dry weight, grain yield, number of eggs/gram of roots, and nematode reproduction factor were obtained at the end of the trials. Each treatment was replicated ten times. There was a marked reduction in both photosynthetic rate and chlorophyll content, as well as an evident yellowing of the leaves of the infected plants. Even at the lowest Pi, the effects of H. glycines on the top dry weight or grain yield were quite severe. Despite the parasitism, soybean yield was highly correlated with the integrated leaf area and, accordingly, the use of this parameter was suggested for the design of potential damage prediction models that include physiological aspects of nematode-diseased plants.

Foot rot and other foot diseases of goat and sheep in the semiarid region of northeastern Brazil

This paper reports the occurrence and epidemiology of outbreaks of foot rot and other foot diseases in goats and sheep in the semiarid region of Paraíba, northeastern Brazil. Four farms were inspected for the presence of foot lesion in sheep and goats and for environmental conditions, general hygiene, pastures, and disease control measures. The prevalence of foot lesions was 19.41% (170/876) in sheep and 17.99% (52/289) in goats, ranging between 5.77% and 33.85% in different farms. Foot rot was the most common disease, affecting 12.1% of the animals examined (141/1165), but with significantly higher (p<0.05) prevalence in sheep (13.69%) than in goats (7.27%). The frequency of malignant foot rot was also significantly lower (p<0.05) in goats (9.53%) than in the sheep (40.83%). On one farm, Dorper sheep showed significantly higher (p<0.05) prevalence of foot rot (17.5%) than Santa Inês sheep (6.79%), and the number of digits affected was also higher in the former. Dichelobacter nodosus and Fusobacterium necrophorum were isolated from cases of foot rot. White line disease was found in 3.95% of the animals, sole ulcers in 1.29%, foot abscess in 1.03% and hoof overgrowth in 0.5%. The high rainfall at the time of occurrence, grazing in wetlands, clay soils with poor drainage, presence of numerous stony grounds, closure of the flocks in pens at night, and introduction of affected animals were considered predisposing factors for the occurrence of foot diseases.

A study on mitigating the effect of sulphates in lime stabilised Cochin marine clays

Soft clays known for their high compressibility, low stiffness and low shear strength are always associated with large settlement. In place soil treatment using calcium-based stabilizers like lime and cement is a feasible solution to readdress strength deficiencies and problematic shrink/swell behaviour of unstable subgrade soils. Out of these, lime has been proved unambiguously as the most effective and economical stabilising agent for marine clays. Lime stabilisation creates long-term chemical changes in unstable clay soils to create strong, but flexible, permanent structural layers in foundations and other pavement systems. Even though calcium-based stabilizers can improve engineering properties of soft clays, problems can arise when they are used in soils rich in sulphates. It is possible for marine clays to be enriched with sulphates, either by nature or due to the discharge of nearby industrial wastes containing sulphates. The presence of sulphates is reported to adversely affect the cation exchange and pozzolanic reactions of cement and lime treated soil systems. The anions of sulphates may combine with the available calcium and alumina, and form insoluble ettringite in the soil system. Literature on sulphate attack in lime treated marine clays reports that formation of ettringite in lime-sodium sulphate-clay system is capable of adversely affecting the engineering behavior of marine clays. Only very few studies have been conducted on soft marine clays found along the coastal belt of Kerala and that too, is limited to Cochin marine clays. The studies conducted also have the limitation that the strength behaviour of lime stabilised clay was investigated only for one year. Practically no data pertaining to long term adverse effects likely to be brought about by sulphates on the strength and compressibility characteristics of Cochin marine clays is available. The overriding goal of this investigation was thus to examine the effectiveness of lime stabilisation in Cochin marine clays under varying sulphate contents. The study aims to reveal the changes brought about by varying sulphate contents on both physical and engineering properties of these clays stabilised by lime and the results for various curing periods up to two years is presented in this thesis. Quite often the load causing an unacceptable settlement may be less than the load required to cause shear failure and therefore attempt has been made in this research to highlight sulphate induced changes in both the compressibility and strength characteristics of lime treated Cochin marine clays. The study also aimed at comparing the available IS methods for sulphate quantification and has attempted to determine the threshold level of sulphate likely make these clays vulnerable by lime stabilisation. Clays used in this study were obtained from two different sites in Kochi and contained sulphate in two different concentrations viz., 0.5% and 0.1%. Two different lime percentages were tried out, 3% and 6%. Sulphate content was varied from 1% to 4% by addition of reagent grade sodium sulphate. The long term influence of naturally present sulphate is also investigated. X-ray diffraction studies and SEM studies have been undertaken to understand how the soil-lime reactions are affected in the presence of sodium sulphate. Natural sulphate content of 0.1% did not seem to have influenced normal soil lime reactions but 0.5% sulphate could induce significant changes adversely in both compressibility and strength behaviour of lime treated clays after long duration. Compressibility is seen to increase drastically with increasing sulphate content suggesting formation of ettringite on curing for longer periods. Increase in compression index and decrease in bond strength with curing period underlined the adverse effects induced in lime treated marine clays by the presence of sulphates. Presence of sulphate in concentrations ranging from 0.5 % to 4% is capable of adversely affecting the strength of lime treated marine clays. Considerable decrease is observed with increasing concentrations of sulphate. Ettringite formation due to domination of sodium ions in the system was confirmed in mineralogical studies made. Barium chloride and barium hydroxide is capable of bringing about beneficial changes both in compressibility and strength characteristics of lime treated Cochin marine clays in the presence of varying concentrations of sulphate and is strongly influenced by curing time. Clay containing sodium sulphate has increased strength values when either of barium compounds was used with lime ascompared with specimens treated with lime only. Barium hydroxide is observed to remarkably increase the strength as compared to barium chloride,when used in conjunction with lime to counteract the effect of sulphate.