Vertical profiles of environmental parameters measured from physical, optical and imaging sensors during station TARA_041 of the Tara Oceans expedition 2009-2013

The Tara Oceans Expedition (2009-2013) sampled the world oceans on board a 36 m long schooner, collecting environmental data and organisms from viruses to planktonic metazoans for later analyses using modern sequencing and state-of-the-art imaging technologies. Tara Oceans Data are particularly suited to study the genetic, morphological and functional diversity of plankton. The present data set includes properties of seawater, particulate matter and dissolved matter from physical, optical and imaging sensors mounted on a vertical sampling system (Rosette) used during the 2009-2013 tara Oceans Expedition. It comprised 2 pairs of conductivity and temperature sensors (SEABIRD components), and a complete set of WEtLabs optical sensors, including chrorophyll and CDOM fluorometers, a 25 cm transmissiometer, and a one-wavelength backscatter meter. In addition, a SATLANTIC ISUS nitrate sensor and a Hydroptic Underwater Vision Profiler (UVP) were mounted on the rosette. In the Arctic Ocean and Arctic Seas (2013), a second oxygen sensor (SBE43) and a four frequency Aquascat acoustic profiler were added. The system was powered on specific Li-Ion batteries and data were self-recorded at 24HZ. Sensors have all been factory calibrated before, during and after the four year program. Oxygen was validated using climatologies (WOA09). Nitrate and Fluorescence data were adjusted with discrete measurements from Niskin bottles mounted on the Rosette, and optical darks were performed monthly on board. A total of 839 quality checked vertical profiles were made during the tara Oceans expedition 2009-2013.

Vertical profiles of environmental parameters measured from physical, optical and imaging sensors during station TARA_058 of the Tara Oceans expedition 2009-2013

The Tara Oceans Expedition (2009-2013) sampled the world oceans on board a 36 m long schooner, collecting environmental data and organisms from viruses to planktonic metazoans for later analyses using modern sequencing and state-of-the-art imaging technologies. Tara Oceans Data are particularly suited to study the genetic, morphological and functional diversity of plankton. The present data set includes properties of seawater, particulate matter and dissolved matter from physical, optical and imaging sensors mounted on a vertical sampling system (Rosette) used during the 2009-2013 tara Oceans Expedition. It comprised 2 pairs of conductivity and temperature sensors (SEABIRD components), and a complete set of WEtLabs optical sensors, including chrorophyll and CDOM fluorometers, a 25 cm transmissiometer, and a one-wavelength backscatter meter. In addition, a SATLANTIC ISUS nitrate sensor and a Hydroptic Underwater Vision Profiler (UVP) were mounted on the rosette. In the Arctic Ocean and Arctic Seas (2013), a second oxygen sensor (SBE43) and a four frequency Aquascat acoustic profiler were added. The system was powered on specific Li-Ion batteries and data were self-recorded at 24HZ. Sensors have all been factory calibrated before, during and after the four year program. Oxygen was validated using climatologies (WOA09). Nitrate and Fluorescence data were adjusted with discrete measurements from Niskin bottles mounted on the Rosette, and optical darks were performed monthly on board. A total of 839 quality checked vertical profiles were made during the tara Oceans expedition 2009-2013.

Vertical profiles of environmental parameters measured from physical, optical and imaging sensors during station TARA_051 of the Tara Oceans expedition 2009-2013

The Tara Oceans Expedition (2009-2013) sampled the world oceans on board a 36 m long schooner, collecting environmental data and organisms from viruses to planktonic metazoans for later analyses using modern sequencing and state-of-the-art imaging technologies. Tara Oceans Data are particularly suited to study the genetic, morphological and functional diversity of plankton. The present data set includes properties of seawater, particulate matter and dissolved matter from physical, optical and imaging sensors mounted on a vertical sampling system (Rosette) used during the 2009-2013 tara Oceans Expedition. It comprised 2 pairs of conductivity and temperature sensors (SEABIRD components), and a complete set of WEtLabs optical sensors, including chrorophyll and CDOM fluorometers, a 25 cm transmissiometer, and a one-wavelength backscatter meter. In addition, a SATLANTIC ISUS nitrate sensor and a Hydroptic Underwater Vision Profiler (UVP) were mounted on the rosette. In the Arctic Ocean and Arctic Seas (2013), a second oxygen sensor (SBE43) and a four frequency Aquascat acoustic profiler were added. The system was powered on specific Li-Ion batteries and data were self-recorded at 24HZ. Sensors have all been factory calibrated before, during and after the four year program. Oxygen was validated using climatologies (WOA09). Nitrate and Fluorescence data were adjusted with discrete measurements from Niskin bottles mounted on the Rosette, and optical darks were performed monthly on board. A total of 839 quality checked vertical profiles were made during the tara Oceans expedition 2009-2013.

Vertical profiles of environmental parameters measured from physical, optical and imaging sensors during station TARA_068 of the Tara Oceans expedition 2009-2013

The Tara Oceans Expedition (2009-2013) sampled the world oceans on board a 36 m long schooner, collecting environmental data and organisms from viruses to planktonic metazoans for later analyses using modern sequencing and state-of-the-art imaging technologies. Tara Oceans Data are particularly suited to study the genetic, morphological and functional diversity of plankton. The present data set includes properties of seawater, particulate matter and dissolved matter from physical, optical and imaging sensors mounted on a vertical sampling system (Rosette) used during the 2009-2013 tara Oceans Expedition. It comprised 2 pairs of conductivity and temperature sensors (SEABIRD components), and a complete set of WEtLabs optical sensors, including chrorophyll and CDOM fluorometers, a 25 cm transmissiometer, and a one-wavelength backscatter meter. In addition, a SATLANTIC ISUS nitrate sensor and a Hydroptic Underwater Vision Profiler (UVP) were mounted on the rosette. In the Arctic Ocean and Arctic Seas (2013), a second oxygen sensor (SBE43) and a four frequency Aquascat acoustic profiler were added. The system was powered on specific Li-Ion batteries and data were self-recorded at 24HZ. Sensors have all been factory calibrated before, during and after the four year program. Oxygen was validated using climatologies (WOA09). Nitrate and Fluorescence data were adjusted with discrete measurements from Niskin bottles mounted on the Rosette, and optical darks were performed monthly on board. A total of 839 quality checked vertical profiles were made during the tara Oceans expedition 2009-2013.

Vertical profiles of environmental parameters measured from physical, optical and imaging sensors during station TARA_086 of the Tara Oceans expedition 2009-2013

The Tara Oceans Expedition (2009-2013) sampled the world oceans on board a 36 m long schooner, collecting environmental data and organisms from viruses to planktonic metazoans for later analyses using modern sequencing and state-of-the-art imaging technologies. Tara Oceans Data are particularly suited to study the genetic, morphological and functional diversity of plankton. The present data set includes properties of seawater, particulate matter and dissolved matter from physical, optical and imaging sensors mounted on a vertical sampling system (Rosette) used during the 2009-2013 tara Oceans Expedition. It comprised 2 pairs of conductivity and temperature sensors (SEABIRD components), and a complete set of WEtLabs optical sensors, including chrorophyll and CDOM fluorometers, a 25 cm transmissiometer, and a one-wavelength backscatter meter. In addition, a SATLANTIC ISUS nitrate sensor and a Hydroptic Underwater Vision Profiler (UVP) were mounted on the rosette. In the Arctic Ocean and Arctic Seas (2013), a second oxygen sensor (SBE43) and a four frequency Aquascat acoustic profiler were added. The system was powered on specific Li-Ion batteries and data were self-recorded at 24HZ. Sensors have all been factory calibrated before, during and after the four year program. Oxygen was validated using climatologies (WOA09). Nitrate and Fluorescence data were adjusted with discrete measurements from Niskin bottles mounted on the Rosette, and optical darks were performed monthly on board. A total of 839 quality checked vertical profiles were made during the tara Oceans expedition 2009-2013.

Vertical profiles of environmental parameters measured from physical, optical and imaging sensors during station TARA_001 of the Tara Oceans expedition 2009-2013

The Tara Oceans Expedition (2009-2013) sampled the world oceans on board a 36 m long schooner, collecting environmental data and organisms from viruses to planktonic metazoans for later analyses using modern sequencing and state-of-the-art imaging technologies. Tara Oceans Data are particularly suited to study the genetic, morphological and functional diversity of plankton. The present data set includes properties of seawater, particulate matter and dissolved matter from physical, optical and imaging sensors mounted on a vertical sampling system (Rosette) used during the 2009-2013 tara Oceans Expedition. It comprised 2 pairs of conductivity and temperature sensors (SEABIRD components), and a complete set of WEtLabs optical sensors, including chrorophyll and CDOM fluorometers, a 25 cm transmissiometer, and a one-wavelength backscatter meter. In addition, a SATLANTIC ISUS nitrate sensor and a Hydroptic Underwater Vision Profiler (UVP) were mounted on the rosette. In the Arctic Ocean and Arctic Seas (2013), a second oxygen sensor (SBE43) and a four frequency Aquascat acoustic profiler were added. The system was powered on specific Li-Ion batteries and data were self-recorded at 24HZ. Sensors have all been factory calibrated before, during and after the four year program. Oxygen was validated using climatologies (WOA09). Nitrate and Fluorescence data were adjusted with discrete measurements from Niskin bottles mounted on the Rosette, and optical darks were performed monthly on board. A total of 839 quality checked vertical profiles were made during the tara Oceans expedition 2009-2013.

Vertical profiles of environmental parameters measured from physical, optical and imaging sensors during station TARA_002 of the Tara Oceans expedition 2009-2013

The Tara Oceans Expedition (2009-2013) sampled the world oceans on board a 36 m long schooner, collecting environmental data and organisms from viruses to planktonic metazoans for later analyses using modern sequencing and state-of-the-art imaging technologies. Tara Oceans Data are particularly suited to study the genetic, morphological and functional diversity of plankton. The present data set includes properties of seawater, particulate matter and dissolved matter from physical, optical and imaging sensors mounted on a vertical sampling system (Rosette) used during the 2009-2013 tara Oceans Expedition. It comprised 2 pairs of conductivity and temperature sensors (SEABIRD components), and a complete set of WEtLabs optical sensors, including chrorophyll and CDOM fluorometers, a 25 cm transmissiometer, and a one-wavelength backscatter meter. In addition, a SATLANTIC ISUS nitrate sensor and a Hydroptic Underwater Vision Profiler (UVP) were mounted on the rosette. In the Arctic Ocean and Arctic Seas (2013), a second oxygen sensor (SBE43) and a four frequency Aquascat acoustic profiler were added. The system was powered on specific Li-Ion batteries and data were self-recorded at 24HZ. Sensors have all been factory calibrated before, during and after the four year program. Oxygen was validated using climatologies (WOA09). Nitrate and Fluorescence data were adjusted with discrete measurements from Niskin bottles mounted on the Rosette, and optical darks were performed monthly on board. A total of 839 quality checked vertical profiles were made during the tara Oceans expedition 2009-2013.

Vertical profiles of environmental parameters measured from physical, optical and imaging sensors during station TARA_006 of the Tara Oceans expedition 2009-2013

The Tara Oceans Expedition (2009-2013) sampled the world oceans on board a 36 m long schooner, collecting environmental data and organisms from viruses to planktonic metazoans for later analyses using modern sequencing and state-of-the-art imaging technologies. Tara Oceans Data are particularly suited to study the genetic, morphological and functional diversity of plankton. The present data set includes properties of seawater, particulate matter and dissolved matter from physical, optical and imaging sensors mounted on a vertical sampling system (Rosette) used during the 2009-2013 tara Oceans Expedition. It comprised 2 pairs of conductivity and temperature sensors (SEABIRD components), and a complete set of WEtLabs optical sensors, including chrorophyll and CDOM fluorometers, a 25 cm transmissiometer, and a one-wavelength backscatter meter. In addition, a SATLANTIC ISUS nitrate sensor and a Hydroptic Underwater Vision Profiler (UVP) were mounted on the rosette. In the Arctic Ocean and Arctic Seas (2013), a second oxygen sensor (SBE43) and a four frequency Aquascat acoustic profiler were added. The system was powered on specific Li-Ion batteries and data were self-recorded at 24HZ. Sensors have all been factory calibrated before, during and after the four year program. Oxygen was validated using climatologies (WOA09). Nitrate and Fluorescence data were adjusted with discrete measurements from Niskin bottles mounted on the Rosette, and optical darks were performed monthly on board. A total of 839 quality checked vertical profiles were made during the tara Oceans expedition 2009-2013.

Physical oceanography from 120 CTDs, 79 water bottles stations, and 30 helicopter-borne CTDs during POLARSTERN cruise ANT-XXII/2 (ISPOL)

The Ice Station POLarstern (ISPOL) cruise revisited the western Weddell Sea in late 2004 and obtained a comprehensive set of conductivity-temperature-depth (CTD) data. This study describes the thermohaline structure and diapycnal mixing environment observed in 2004 and compares them with conditions observed more than a decade earlier. Hydrographic conditions on the central western Weddell Sea continental slope, off Larsen C Ice Shelf, in late winter/early spring of 2004/2005 can be described as a well-stratified environment with upper layers evidencing relict structures from intense winter near-surface vertical fluxes, an intermediate depth temperature maximum, and a cold near-bottom layer marked by patchy property distributions. A well-developed surface mixed layer, isolated from the underlying Warm Deep Water (WDW) by a pronounced pycnocline and characterized by lack of warming and by minimal sea-ice basal melting, supports the assumption that upper ocean winter conditions persisted during most of the ISPOL experiment. Much of the western Weddell Sea water column has remained essentially unchanged since 1992; however, significant differences were observed in two of the regional water masses. The first, Modified Weddell Deep Water (MWDW), comprises the permanent pycnocline and was less saline than a decade earlier, whereas Weddell Sea Bottom Water (WSBW) was horizontally patchier and colder. Near-bottom temperatures observed in 2004 were the coldest on record for the western Weddell Sea over the continental slope. Minimum temperatures were ~0.4 and ~0.3 °C colder than during 1992-1993, respectively. The 2004 near-bottom temperature/salinity characteristics revealed the presence of two different WSBW types, whereby a warm, fresh layer overlays a colder, saltier layer (both formed in the western Weddell Sea). The deeper layer may have formed locally as high salinity shelf water (HSSW) that flowed intermittently down the continental slope, which is consistent with the observed horizontal patchiness. The latter can be associated with the near-bottom variability found in Powell Basin with consequences for the deep water outflow from the Weddell Sea.

Physical oceanography during Nathaniel B. Palmer cruises NBP06-01 and NBP06-08 to the Ross Sea

We calculate net community production (NCP) during summer 2005-2006 and spring 2006 in the Ross Sea using multiple approaches to determine the magnitude and consistency of rates. Water column carbon and nutrient inventories and surface ocean O2/Ar data are compared to satellite-derived primary productivity (PP) estimates and 14C uptake experiments. In spring, NCP was related to stratification proximal to upper ocean fronts. In summer, the most intense C drawdown was in shallow mixed layers affected by ice melt; depth-integrated C drawdown, however, increased with mixing depth. Delta O2/Ar-based methods, relying on gas exchange reconstructions, underestimate NCP due to seasonal variations in surface Delta O2/Ar and NCP rates. Mixed layer Delta O2/Ar requires approximately 60 days to reach steady state, starting from early spring. Additionally, cold temperatures prolong the sensitivity of gas exchange reconstructions to past NCP variability. Complex vertical structure, in addition to the seasonal cycle, affects interpretations of surface-based observations, including those made from satellites. During both spring and summer, substantial fractions of NCP were below the mixed layer. Satellite-derived estimates tended to overestimate PP relative to 14C-based estimates, most severely in locations of stronger upper water column stratification. Biases notwithstanding, NCP-PP comparisons indicated that community respiration was of similar magnitude to NCP. We observed that a substantial portion of NCP remained as suspended particulate matter in the upper water column, demonstrating a lag between production and export. Resolving the dynamic physical processes that structure variance in NCP and its fate will enhance the understanding of the carbon cycling in highly productive Antarctic environments.

Physical oceanography, pore water chemistry and water column methane turover rates during POLARSTERN cruise ANT-XXIX/4

Recent studies have suggested that the marine contribution of methane from shallow regions and melting marine terminating glaciers may have been underestimated. Here we report on methane sources and potential sinks associated with methane seeps in Cumberland Bay, South Georgia's largest fjord system. The average organic carbon content in the upper 8 meters of the sediment is around 0.65 wt.%; this observation combined with Parasound data suggest that the methane gas accumulations probably originate from peat-bearing sediments currently located several tens of meters below the seafloor. Only one of our cores indicates upward advection; instead most of the methane is transported via diffusion. Sulfate and methane flux estimates indicate that a large fraction of methane is consumed by anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM). Carbon cycling at the sulfate-methane transition (SMT) results in a marked fractionation of the d13C-CH4 from an estimated source value of -65 per mil to a value as low as -96 per mil just below the SMT. Methane concentrations in sediments are high, especially close to the seepage sites (~40 mM); however, concentrations in the water column are relatively low (max. 58 nM) and can be observed only close to the seafloor. Methane is trapped in the lowermost water mass, however, measured microbial oxidation rates reveal very low activity with an average turnover of 3.1 years. We therefore infer that methane must be transported out of the bay in the bottom water layer. A mean sea-air flux of only 0.005 nM/m²/s confirms that almost no methane reaches the atmosphere.

Sediment and pore water chemistry and physical oceanography of samples obtained during Baltic Sea research cruises

Sediment samples from approximately 40 stations in the Western, middle and eastern Baltic Sea were investigated for manganese and iron content. In a series of interstitial water samples and numerous deep and surface water samples, the manganese content was likewise determined. A strong enrichment of these elements in the basin sediments was shown. In many instances, several percent manganese were present. As a maximum value, 13% was found in a 1 mm thick layer. Furthermore, a distinct decrease in manganese content with increasing sediment depth was shown in the upper 10 to 20 cm of the Sediment at almost all stations. Both phenomena may be explained by the release of manganese from the Sediment through diffusion. In the flat parts of the Baltic and those parts having good bottom water circulation, this diffusion progresses especially vigorously as a result of a steep gradient of the Mn++ concentration in the interstitial water-deep water interface. The manganese which hereby passes into the water overlying the bottom (manganese contents between 10 and 100 y Mn/l were determined in numerous deep water samples) is partly reprecipitated on the Sediment surface, and partly carried by currents into the deeper basins where it is finallv deposited. It is bound there as a manganese-rich mixed carbonate, the composition of which can be proved chemically and by x-ray methods. Iron is likewise of higher content in the basinal sediments, however, the extent of its enrichment is far less since it is less soluble than manganese under the reducing conditions in the sediments. The fine bands of manganese- and iron-rich layers in the basin sediments may likewise be explained as a result of diffusion.

Physical oceanography and processed 2 minutes-averaged continuous VM-ADCP profiles during POLARSTERN cruise ANT-XXVIII/3

The physical and biological carbon pumps in the different hydrographic and biogeochemical regimes of the Atlantic Sector of the Southern Ocean are controlled by a series of coupled physical, chemical and biological processes and a project named Eddy-Pump was designed to study them. The Eddy Pump field campaign was carried out during RV Polarstern Cruise ANT-XXVIII/3 between January and March 2012. Particular emphasis was laid on the differences which occur along the axis of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) with its associated mesoscale eddy field. The study sites were selected in order to represent (1) the central ACC with its regular separation in different frontal jets, investigated by a meridional transect along 10°E; (2) a large-scale bloom west of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge which lasted several months with conspicuous chlorophyll-poor waters to its immediate east studied by a three-dimensional mesoscale survey centred at 12°40'W; and (3) the Georgia Basin north of the island of South Georgia, which regularly features an extended and dense phytoplankton bloom, was investigated by a mesoscale survey centred at 38°12'W. While Eddy-Pump represents an interdisciplinary project by design, we here focus on describing the variable physical environment within which the different biogeochemical regimes developed. For describing the physical environment we use measurements of temperature, salinity and density, of mixed-layer turbulence parameters, of dynamic heights and horizontal current vectors, and of flow trajectories obtained from surface drifters and submerged floats. This serves as background information for the analyses of biological and chemical processes and of biogeochemical fluxes addressed by other papers in this issue. The section along 10°E between 44°S and 53°S showed a classical ACC structure with well-known hydrographic fronts, the Subantarctic Front (SAF) at 46.5°S, the Antarctic Polar Front (APF) split in two, at 49.25°S and 50.5°S, and the Southern Polar Front (SPF) at 52.5°S. Each front was associated with strong eastward flows. The West Mid-Atlantic Ridge Survey showed a weak and poorly resolved meander structure between the APF and the SPF. During the first eight days of the survey the oceanographic conditions at the Central Station at 12°40'W remained reasonably constant. However after that, conditions became more variable in the thermocline with conspicuous temperature inversions and interleavings and also a decrease in temperature in the surface layer. At the very end of the period of observation the conditions in the thermocline returned to being similar to those observed during the early part of the period with however the mixed layer temperature raised. The period of enhanced thermohaline variability was accompanied by increased currents. The Georgia Basin Survey showed a very strong zonal jet at its northern edge which connects to a large cyclonic meander that itself joins an anticyclonic eddy in the southeastern quadrant. The water mass contrasts in this survey were stronger than in the West Mid-Atlantic Ridge Survey, but similar to those met along 10°E with the exception that the warm and saline surface water typical of the northern side of the SAF was not covered by the Georgia Basin Survey. Mixed layers found during Eddy-Pump were typically deep, but varied between the three survey areas; the mean depths and standard variations of the mixed layer along the 10°E were 77.2±24.7 m, at the West Mid-Atlantic Ridge 66.7±17.7 m, and in the Georgia Basin 36.8±10.7 m.

An ether-functionalised cyclic sulfonium based ionic liquid as an electrolyte for electrochemical double layer capacitors

A novel cyclic sulfonium cation-based ionic liquid (IL) with an ether-group appendage and the bis{(trifluoromethyl)sulfonyl}imide anion was synthesised and developed for electrochemical double layer capacitor (EDLC) testing. The synthesis and chemical-physical characterisation of the ether-group containing IL is reported in parallel with a similarly sized alkyl-functionalised sulfonium IL. Results of the chemical-physical measurements demonstrate how important transport properties, i.e. viscosity and conductivity, can be promoted through the introduction of the ether-functionality without impeding thermal, chemical or electrochemical stability of the IL. Although the apparent transport properties are improved relative to the alkyl-functionalised analogue, the ether-functionalised sulfonium cation-based IL exhibits moderately high viscosity, and poorer conductivity, when compared to traditional EDLC electrolytes based on organic solvents (propylene carbonate and acetonitrile). Electrochemical testing of the ether-functionalised sulfonium IL was conducted using activated carbon composite electrodes to inspect the performance of the IL as a solvent-free electrolyte for EDLC application. Good cycling stability was achieved over the studied range and the performance was comparable to other solvent free,
IL-based EDLC systems. Nevertheless, limitations of the attainable performance are primarily the result of sluggish transport properties and a restricted operative voltage of the IL, thus highlighting key aspects of this field which require further attention.

Adsorption Calorimetry for Energy Conversion Technologies: Applications in Organic Photovoltaics, Catalysis, and Atomic Layer Deposition

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Washington, 2016-07