Removal of Sea Lettuce, Ulva spp., in Estuaries to Improve the Environments for Invertebrates, Fish, Wading Birds, and Eelgrass, Zostera marina

Mats (biomasses) of macroalgae, i.e. Ulva spp., Enteromorpha spp., Graciolaria spp., and Cladophora spp., have increased markedly over the past 50 years, and they cover much larger areas than they once did in many estuaries of the world. The increases are due to large inputs of pollutants, mainly nitrates. During the warm months, the mats lie loosely on shallow sand and mud flats mostly along shorelines. Ulva lactuca overwinters as buds attached to shells and stones, and in the spring it grows as thalli (leaf fronds). Mats eventually form that are several thalli thick. Few macroinvertebrates grow on the upper surfaces of their thalli due to toxins they produce, and few can survive beneath them. The fish, crabs, and wading birds that once used the flats to feed on the macroinvertebrates are denied these feeding grounds. The mats also grow over and kill mollusks and eelgrass, Zostera marina. An experiment was undertaken which showed that two removals of U. lactuca in a summer from a shallow flat in an estuarine cove maintained the bottom almost free of it.

Beluga, Delphinapterus leucas, Habitat Associations in Cook Inlet, Alaska

A review of available information describing habitat associations for belugas, Delphinapterus leucas, in Cook Inlet was undertaken to complement population assessment surveys from 1993-2000. Available data for physical, biological, and anthropogenic factors in Cook Inlet are summarized followed by a provisional description of seasonal habitat associations. To summarize habitat preferences, the beluga summer distribution pattern was used to partition Cook Inlet into three regions. In general, belugas congregate in shallow, relatively warm, low-salinity water near major river outflows in upper Cook Inlet during summer (defined as their primary habitat), where prey availability is comparatively high and predator occurrence relatively low. In winter, belugas are seen in the central inlet, but sightings are fewer in number, and whales more dispersed compared to summer. Belugas are associated with a range of ice conditions in winter, from ice-free to 60% ice-covered water. Natural catastrophic events, such as fires, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions, have had no reported effect on beluga habitat, although such events likely affect water quality and, potentially, prey availability. Similarly, although sewage effluent and discharges from industrial and military activities along Cook Inlet negatively affect water quality, analyses of organochlorines and heavy metal burdens indicate that Cook Inlet belugas are not assimilating contaminant loads greater than any other Alaska beluga stocks. Offshore oil and gas activities and vessel traffic are high in the central inlet compared with other Alaska waters, although belugas in Cook Inlet seem habituated to these anthropogenic factors. Anthropogenic factors that have the highest potential negative impacts on belugas include subsistence hunts (not discussed in this report), noise from transportation and offshore oil and gas extraction (ship transits and aircraft overflights), and water quality degradation (from urban runoff and sewage treatment facilities). Although significant impacts from anthropogenic factors other than hunting are not yet apparent, assessment of potential impacts from human activities, especially those that may effect prey availability, are needed.

Mersey & Weaver Fisheries Advisory Committee 12th April, 1978

This is the report from the Mersey and Weaver Fisheries Advisory Committee meeting, which was held on the 12th April, 1978. It covers information on fisheries income and expenditure, the pilot warm-water coarse fish hatching and rearing installation at Great Sankey, annual fishing permits on reservoirs and terminated angling leases. It also includes the report by the area fisheries officer on river conditions and fishing, and an update on Tintwistle hatchery and Worthington Stock Pools. Included in this report is also the stocking numbers of coarse fish, brown trout and rainbow trout by the Angling Associations, pollution incidents and fish mortalities and fisheries management. The Fisheries Advisory Committee was part of the Regional Water Authorities, in this case the North West Water Authority. This preceded the Environment Agency which came into existence in 1996.

Diferenciação genética do golfinho-de-dentes-rugosos, Steno bredanensis (Cuvier in Lesson, 1828) (Cetartiodactyla: Delphinidae): taxonomia molecular e estrutura populacional

O gênero Steno pertence à Ordem Cetartiodactyla, Família Delphinidae, e compreende apenas uma espécie: o golfinho-de-dentes-rugosos, Steno bredanensis. O golfinho-de-dentes-rugosos é encontrado nos Oceanos Atlântico, Pacífico e Índico, em águas profundas tropicais, subtropicais e temperadas quentes. Entretanto, em algumas localidades como as regiões Sudeste e Sul do Brasil, esta espécie é conhecida por apresentar hábitos costeiros, o que a torna suscetível a ameaças antropogênicas como a degradação do hábitat, as capturas acidentais e diversos tipos de poluição. Conhecer a magnitude destes impactos e o grau de diferenciação genética das populações usando marcadores moleculares são aspectos importantes para a conservação da espécie. Os marcadores moleculares são segmentos específicos de DNA que podem ou não fazer parte de um gene e que apresentam grau de polimorfismo adequado para responder questões sobre as relações genéticas de indivíduos, populações ou diferentes espécies. O DNA mitocondrial é um dos marcadores moleculares mais utilizados em estudos sobre estrutura populacional, sistemática e filogenia de cetáceos. Estudos genéticos têm mostrado que várias espécies de delfinídeos apresentam estrutura populacional genética, entre e dentro das bacias oceânicas. No presente estudo foi investigada a diferenciação genética do golfinho-de-dentes-rugosos usando sequências da região controle mitocondrial de várias localidades em todo o mundo (Oceano Pacífico Centro-Sul: N=59; Pacífico Tropical Leste: N= 4; Pacífico Noroeste: N=1; Oceano Índico: N=1; Atlântico - Caribe: N=3; Atlântico Sudoeste: N=44; N total = 112). Análises preliminares indicaram grande diferenciação genética entre os Oceanos Atlântico e Pacífico/Índico (distância p = 0,031), que foram posteriormente investigadas utilizando sequências do citocromo b e mitogenomas completos. As análises filogenéticas de Neighbor-Joining e Bayesianas não foram conclusivas sobre a existência de especiação críptica em Steno. No entanto, a grande diferenciação entre as bacias oceânicas merece uma análise mais aprofundada, utilizando outros marcadores genéticos (por ex., sequências nucleares) bem como dados morfológicos. Não obstante, as análises AMOVA e FST par-a-par revelaram forte diferenciação populacional, não só entre os oceanos Atlântico e Pacífico, mas também no Atlântico, onde foram detectadas três populações: Caribe, região Sudeste e região Sul do Brasil. As populações detectadas no Atlântico Sudoeste devem ser aceitas como Unidades de Manejo (Management Units, MU) e dados demográficos básicos precisam ser levantados para essas MU, a fim de possibilitar uma melhor avaliação dos impactos antrópicos sobre elas. Este estudo fornece a primeira perspectiva sobre a diferenciação genética mundial de S. bredanensis.

Inflação estocástica não-isentrópica

Em modelos inflacionários não-isentrópicos, a contribuição para o espectro de potência é essencialmente proveniente das flutuações térmicas. Esta é a situação oposta a da inflação fria, onde as flutuações de origem quântica fornecem toda contribuição para o espectro. Pouca ou nenhuma importância tem sido dada ao regime intermediário, onde as flutuações quânticas e térmicas são comparáveis. Neste trabalho, tendo como bases a inflação não-isentrópica e a inflação estocástica de Starobinsky, propomos um quadro geral onde é possível tratar de maneira conjunta, explícita e transparente tanto a contribuição de origem quântica quanto a de origem térmica para o espectro de potência do inflaton.O espectro de potência geral obtido reproduz, nos limites apropriados, todos os resultados caracteríssticos tanto da inflação fria, quanto da inflação não-isentrópica. Com o objetivo de checar a consistência e a viabilidade do modelo, foram usados os típicos potenciais polinomiais característicos da inflação caótica. Apesar destes potenciais já estarem praticamente descartados pelas observações no contexto da inflação fria, surpreendentemente pudemos constatar que efeitos dissipativos e de temperatura são capazes de restaurar a compatibilidade dos mesmos com os parâmetros cosmológicos inferidos através dos dados do nono ano do WMAP. Através da inserção de tais efeitos na dinâmica de grandes escalas do inflaton, estendemos ainda alguns resultados relacionados ao cenário conhecido como inflação eterna.

Ecology and growth of juvenile California spiny lobster, Panulirus interruptus (Randall)

ABSTRACT TRANSCRIBED FROM ENGLE'S PH.D. ORAL DEFENSE PAMPHLET: The natural history of juvenile California spiny lobster, Panulirus interruptus (Randall), was investigated, with primary emphasis placed on ascertaining juvenile habitats, determining juvenile growth rates and component growth processes, and evaluating ecological and behavioral phenomena associated with juvenile survival and growth. Habitat surveys of island and mainland localities throughout southern and lower California revealed that small, greenish juveniles typically inhabit crevices or temporary burrows in 0-4m deep, wave-swept rocky habitats covered by dense beds of surf grass, Phyllospadix torreyi S. Watson. Phyllospadix beds were more abundant on gradually sloping rocky mainland beaches than on steeply sloping island shores. Phyllospadix abundance was positively correlated with P. interruptus abundance; however, at Santa Catalina Island, the Phyllospadix habitat was not extensive enough to be the sole lobster nursery. In laboratory tests, puerulus larvae and early juveniles chose Phyllospadix over rubble rocks or broad-bladed kelp, but did not consistently prefer Phyllospadix over reticulate algae. Ecology, growth, and behavior of juvenile P. interruptus inhabiting a discrete Phyllospadix habitat at Bird Rock, Santa Catalina Island, were investigated from October 1974 through December 1976 by means of frequent scuba surveys. Pueruli settled from June to November. Peak recruitment occurred from July to September, when seasonal temperatures were maximal. Settled larvae were approximately one year old. Juvenile growth was determined by size-frequency, single molt increment, mark-recapture, and laboratory culture studies. Carapace length vs. wet weight relationships fit standard power curve equations. Bird Rock juveniles grew from 7 to 32mm CL in 10-11 molts and from 32 to 56mm CL in 5-6 molts during their first and second benthic years, respectively. Growth rates were similar for males and females. Juveniles regenerating more than two limbs grew less per molt than intact lobsters. Long-term growth of laboratory-reared juveniles was 20% less than that of field lobsters. Growth component multiple regression analyses demonstrated that molt increment was directly proportional to premolt size and temperature for age 1+ lobsters. Molt frequency was inversely proportional to size and directly proportional to temperature. Temperature affected age 2+ lobsters similarly, but molt increment was independent of size, and molt frequency declined at a different rate. Juvenile growth rates more than doubled during warm water months compared to cold water months, primarily because of increased molt frequency. Based on results from this study and from previous investigations, it is estimated that P. interruptus males and females become sexually mature by ages 4 and 5 years, respectively, and that legai size is reached by 7 or 8 years of age. Juvenile P. interruptus activity patterns and foraging behavior were similar to those of adults, except that juvenile home ranges were proportionally smaller, and small juveniles were apparently not attracted to distant food. Small mollusks, abundant in Phyllospadix habitats, were the major food items. Size-dependent predation by fish and octopus apparently caused the considerable juvenile mortality observed at Bird Rock. Juveniles approaching 2 years of age gathered in mixed size-class aggregations by day and foraged beyond the grass beds at night. In autumn, these juveniles migrated to deeper habitats, coincident with new puerulus settlement in the Phyllospadix beds. Based on strong inferences from the results, it is proposed that size-dependent predation is the most important factor determining the !ife history strategy of juvenile P. interruptus. Life history tactics promoting rapid growth apparently function dually in reducing the period of high vulnerability to predation and decreasing the time required to reach sexual maturity. The Phyllospadix habitat is an excellent lobster nursery because it provides shelter from predators and possesses abundant food resources for sustaining optimum juvenile growth rates in shallow, warm water.

Caribbean corals in crisis: record thermal stress, bleaching, and mortality in 2005

Background: The rising temperature of the world’s oceans has become a major threat to coral reefs globally as the severity and frequency of mass coral bleaching and mortality events increase. In 2005, high ocean temperatures in the tropical Atlantic and Caribbean resulted in the most severe bleaching event ever recorded in the basin. Methodology/Principal Findings: Satellite-based tools provided warnings for coral reef managers and scientists, guiding both the timing and location of researchers’ field observations as anomalously warm conditions developed and spread across the greater Caribbean region from June to October 2005. Field surveys of bleaching and mortality exceeded prior efforts in detail and extent, and provided a new standard for documenting the effects of bleaching and for testing nowcast and forecast products. Collaborators from 22 countries undertook the most comprehensive documentation of basin-scale bleaching to date and found that over 80% of corals bleached and over 40% died at many sites. The most severe bleaching coincided with waters nearest a western Atlantic warm pool that was centered off the northern end of the Lesser Antilles. Conclusions/Significance: Thermal stress during the 2005 event exceeded any observed from the Caribbean in the prior 20 years, and regionally-averaged temperatures were the warmest in over 150 years. Comparison of satellite data against field surveys demonstrated a significant predictive relationship between accumulated heat stress (measured using NOAA Coral Reef Watch’s Degree Heating Weeks) and bleaching intensity. This severe, widespread bleaching and mortality will undoubtedly have long-term consequences for reef ecosystems and suggests a troubled future for tropical marine ecosystems under a warming climate

Inflação em sistemas com fluidos de radiação com viscosidade e dissipação e análise de estabilidade

Este trabalho apresenta um estudo da estabilidade das equações da inflação morna com um fluido de radiação viscoso. A viscosidade do fluido é proveniente do constante decaimento de partículas neste, devido à dissipação do campo escalar da inflação, o ínflaton.Esta viscosidade, que pode ser volumar ou laminar, é tratada em termos de teorias termodinâmicas fora do equilíbrio. Este estudo se limita às equações de fundo da inflação morna, de modo que somente a viscosidade volumar tem um efeito significativo, sendo a viscosidade laminar importante somente no contexto de perturbações cosmológicas. A descrição da viscosidade em termos de uma termodinâmica fora do equilíbrio, porém, não pode ser realizada univocamente, pois a única informação que temos sobre processos irreversíveis é a segunda lei da termodinâmica. Portanto, parte-se em busca de teorias que estejam de acordo com esta lei e que, por argumentos plausíveis, sejam capazes de descrever o comportamento dos fluxos dissipativos próximo ao equilíbrio. O objetivo deste trabalho é estudar a estabilidade da inflação morna viscosa para teorias causais e não causais para o fluido de radiação com viscosidade, de forma que se possa observar o impacto da viscosidade no regime inflacionário e a relevância de se passar a considerar a causalidade. Para o fluido de radiação, as teorias consideradas são a teoria não causal de Eckart e as teorias causais de Israel-Stewart e de Denicol et al (hidrodinâmica dissipativa causal não linear). Obtém-se que as teorias causais, como era de se esperar, além de serem, por definição, consistentes no tocante à finitude da velocidade de propagação dos fluxos dissipativos, tornam o sistema dinâmico estável para valores de viscosidade mais distantes do equilíbrio. Observa-se também, nitidamente, que a teoria de Denicol et al é a mais robusta nesse sentido. Este trabalho, portanto, visa dar continuidade ao estudo dos efeitos não-isentrópicos na inflação, já que, além da dissipação do ínflaton na inflação morna, o impacto da viscosidade tem despertado bastante interesse.

The California flooding rains during February, 1986 [abstract]

After an unusually strong and persistent pattern of atmospheric circulation over the United State[s] in Fall 1985, it became quite changeable (although high amplitude anomalies still prevailed). Following a fall that was cold in the West and warm in the East with heavy precipitation, a high pressure ridge set in over the West during December, with generally light precipitation over most of the country. Throughout the winter, the central North Pacific was very active, with large negative atmospheric pressure anomalies centered at about 45°N, l60°W. This activity may have been encouraged by an enhanced meridional eastern North Pacific sea surface temperature (SST) gradient, with positive SST anomalies in the subtropics and negative anomalies in midlatitudes. However, in January, the western high pressure ridge remained strong and temperatures were remarkably warm, increasing the threat of drought in California after the two previous dry winters. However, in February, storms from a greatly expanded and southerly displaced Aleutian Low broke into the West Coast. An unusual siege from February 11 to February 20 flooded central and northern California, with very heavy precipitation and record to near-record runoff. Upwards of 50 percent of annual average precipitation fell on locations from the upper San Joaquin to the Feather River drainage basins, and the largest flow since observations began in the early 1900's was recorded on the Sacramento River at Sacramento. The atmospheric pattern that was responsible for this remarkable stormy spell developed when the western high pressure retrograded to the northwest into the Aleutians, accompanied by the strengthened and southerly extended storm tract that moved into California. Although exact details vary from case to case, this episode displayed meteorological conditions similar to those in several other historical California winter flood events. These included a long duration of very strong westerly to southwesterly winds over a long subtropical fetch into California. Much of the precipitation during this series of storms was orographically induced by the moisture laden flow rising over the Sierra ranges. Due to the warm air mass, snow levels were relatively high (about 7500 feet) during the heaviest precipitation, resulting in copious runoff.

Surface temperature and precipitation variations in the western U.S. and their relation to large scale circulation indices [abstract]

EXTRACT (SEE PDF FOR FULL ABSTRACT): An analysis of the principal components of surface temperature and precipitation in the western U.S. is presented. Data consist of monthly mean temperature and total precipitation for 66 climate divisions west of the Continental Divide, for the years 1931-1984. The analysis is repeated for three separate combinations of months - the water year (Oct - Sept), the cool season (Oct - Mar) and the warm season (Apr - Sept). Inspection of monthly precipitation climatology indicates that selection of these combinations of months results in very few awkward splittings of the natural precipitation seasons found in the West.

Trans-Sierran climatic contacts during the last 12,000 years [abstract]

EXTRACT (SEE PDF FOR FULL ABSTRACT): The early-Holocene warm period, ca. 9000 years ago, is a realistic analog for the possible effects of greenhouse warming. At that time the vegetation of the western Sierra Nevada resembled that currently found east of the crest. ... Tourism, water supply, and the logging industry will be negatively effected if climate changes during the next century are in the direction and magnitude of those of the early Holocene. Increased precipitation in the eastern Sierra could offset some of the effects.

增强UV-B辐射对暖温带落叶阔叶林下土庄绣线菊水分生理和氮素利用及形态特性的影响

在中国北方大部分地区，水分始终是影响植物生长和分布的最主要限制性因子之一，植物在其生长期经常遭受水分胁迫。不仅如此，随着大气同温层中臭氧浓度的减少，过量的有害紫外辐射（主要是UV-B，280nm-320nm）将穿透大气层达到地球表面。随着全球变化的加剧，这些地区的植物将不可避免地受UV-B和水分胁迫的共同作用。 本实验是在北京东灵山暖温带森林生态系统中，选择常见灌丛土庄绣线菊(Spiraea pubescens)，建立UV-B控制实验。连续三个生长季每天增补9.4kJ•m-2的辐射剂量，模拟臭氧衰减17%时近地表面UV-B辐射的增强。本实验的目的是观测在野外环境下，长时间人工增强UV-B辐射对土庄绣线菊水分生理、氮素利用以及形态特征的影响。具体对以下指标进行测定：叶片的气孔导度、碳同位素比率（δ13 C）、叶含水量、叶面积、水分利用效率（WUE）、叶全氮含量、叶氮素再吸收率。 实验结果表明，增强UV-B辐射显著减少了土庄绣线菊的叶面积（50.1%），提高了叶片全氮含量(102%)，处理植株的氮素再吸收率比对照植株高出50.9%。同时，UV-B辐射还在一定程度上（尽管统计显示不显著）降低了气孔导度(16.1%)、胞间CO2浓度与大气CO2浓度之比(Ci/Ca) (4.0%)、提高了碳同位素比率（δ13 C）(20.5‰)、叶含水量(3.1%)及比叶重（SLW）(5.2%)，从而导致水分利用效率（WUE）的增加(4.1%)，植物的抗旱能力增强。值得注意的是，深层土壤（30-40cm）含水量变化会影响气孔导度、δ13 C、WUE对紫外辐射的响应程度：在土壤干旱的季节（6月和9月），气孔导度、δ13 C、WUE这些指标处理和对照的差异很小，但是当土壤水分充足时（7月和8月），处理和对照的差异就较为显著。另外，随着实验处理时间的延长UV-B的效应变得不显著。相关分析表明，UV-B辐射降低了土壤含水量（30-40cm）与土庄绣线菊叶含水量、δ13 C、Ci/Ca、气孔导度的相关系数，增强了WUE与土壤含水量的相关性，这也许是由于UV-B辐射增强了WUE对土壤水分变化的敏感性。本研究的结果表明UV-B辐射对土庄绣线菊的形态和生长有显著的影响，但对主要水分生理指标影响不显著。

Year-to-year changes of vertical temperature distribution in the California Current region: 1954 to 1986

Studies by Enfield and Allen (1980), McLain et al (1985), and others have shown that anomalously warm years in the northern coastal California Current correspond to El Niño conditions in the equatorial Pacific Ocean. Ocean model studies suggest a mechanical link between the northern coastal California Current and the equatorial ocean through long waves that propagate cyclonically along the ocean boundary (McCreary 1976; Clarke 1983; Shriver et al 1991). However, distinct observational evidence of such an oceanic connection is not extensive. Much of the supposed El Niño variation in temperature and sea level data from the coastal California Current region can be associated with the effects of anomalously intense north Pacific atmospheric cyclogenesis, which is frequently augmented during El Niño years (Wallace and Gutzler 1981; Simpson 1983; Emery and Hamilton 1984). This study uses time series of ocean temperature data to distinguish between locally forced effects, initiated by north Pacific atmospheric changes, and remotely forced effects, initiated by equatorial Pacific atmospheric changes related to El Niño events.

Changes in frost frequency and desert vegetation assemblages in Grand Canyon, Arizona

The effect of decreasing frost frequency on desert vegetation was documented in Grand Canyon by replication of historical photographs. Although views by numerous photographers of Grand Canyon have been examined, 400 Robert Brewster Stanton and Franklin A. Nims views taken in the winter of 1889-1890 provide the best information on recent plant distribution. In Grand Canyon, where grazing is limited by the rugged topography, vegetation dynamics are controlled by climate and by demographic processes such as seed productivity, recruitment, longevity and mortality. The replicated photographs show distribution and abundance of several species were limited by severe frost before 1889. Two of these, brittlebush (Encelia farinosa) and barrel cactus (Ferocactus cylindraceus), have clearly expanded their ranges up-canyon and have increased their densities at sites where they were present in 1890. In 1890, brittlebush was present in warm microhabitats that provided refugia from frost damage. Views showing desert vegetation in 1923 indicate that Encelia expanded rapidly to near its current distribution between 1890 and 1923, whereas the expansion of Ferocactus occurred more slowly. The higher frequency of frost was probably related to an anomalous increase in winter storms between 1878 (and possibly 1862) and 1891 in the southwestern United States.

A biogeographic assessment of the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary: a review of boundary expansion concepts for NOAA’s National Marine Sanctuary Program

The priority management goal of the National Marine Sanctuaries Program (NMSP) is to protect marine ecosystems and biodiversity. This goal requires an understanding of broad-scale ecological relationships and linkages between marine resources and physical oceanography to support an ecosystem management approach. The Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary (CINMS) is currently reviewing its management plan and investigating boundary expansion. A management plan study area (henceforth, Study Area) was described that extends from the current boundary north to the mainland, and extends north to Point Sal and south to Point Dume. Six additional boundary concepts were developed that vary in area and include the majority of the Study Area. The NMSP and CINMS partnered with NOAA’s National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science Biogeography Team to conduct a biogeographic assessment to characterize marine resources and oceanographic patterns within and adjacent to the sanctuary. This assessment includes a suite of quantitative spatial and statistical analyses that characterize biological and oceanographic patterns in the marine region from Point Sal to the U.S.-Mexico border. These data were analyzed using an index which evaluates an ecological “cost-benefit” within the proposed boundary concepts and the Study Area. The sanctuary resides in a dynamic setting where two oceanographic regimes meet. Cold northern waters mix with warm southern waters around the Channel Islands creating an area of transition that strongly influences the regions oceanography. In turn, these processes drive the biological distributions within the region. This assessment analyzes bathymetry, benthic substrate, bathymetric life-zones, sea surface temperature, primary production, currents, submerged aquatic vegetation, and kelp in the context of broad-scale patterns and relative to the proposed boundary concepts and the Study Area. Boundary cost-benefit results for these parameters were variable due to their dynamic nature; however, when analyzed in composite the Study Area and Boundary Concept 2 were considered the most favorable. Biological data were collected from numerous resource agencies and university scientists for this assessment. Fish and invertebrate trawl data were used to characterize community structure. Habitat suitability models were developed for 15 species of macroinvertebrates and 11 species of fish that have significant ecological, commercial, or recreational importance in the region and general patterns of ichthyoplankton distribution are described. Six surveys of ship and plane at-sea surveys were used to model marine bird diversity from Point Arena to the U.S.-Mexico border. Additional surveys were utilized to estimate density and colony counts for nine bird species. Critical habitat for western snowy plover and the location of California least tern breeding pairs were also analyzed. At-sea surveys were also used to describe the distribution of 14 species of cetaceans and five species of pinnipeds. Boundary concept cost-benefit indices revealed that Boundary Concept 2 and the Study Area were most favorable for the majority of the species-specific analyses. Boundary Concept 3 was most favorable for bird diversity across the region. Inadequate spatial resolution for fish and invertebrate community data and incompatible sampling effort information for bird and mammal data precluded boundary cost-benefit analysis.